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Abstract This article discusse new poetical tradition and salient features of 19th centaury of British colonial period of Sri Lanka. The language features and metric components (virit) are highlighted. Moving concurrently are the features of popular poetry and narrative poetry and gentlemen poetry to be disscueed. The dawn of printing technology gave rise to the popular pamphlet poetic tradition (kavil kola) this is also discussed. The new poetic tradition is considered to be a transition period in modern literature. Most materials used in this study have been obtained from publications and materials available at the Colombo Museum, the Department of Historic Documents in the main Library of the University of Peradeniya, the Asia and African Sections and Social Science Sections of the British Library in London.
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The Poetical Works and the Poetic Language during the British Period in Sri Lanka
by
Ven. Olaganwatte Chandrasiri
Printing Technology and the New Literary Movement
In the 19th century during the British colonial rule, the printing industry began in earnest and
expanded considerably and as a result many booklets of Sinhalese verse were published. There is
a marked difference between the poetry of the Colombo Period, (1930 to 1950s which is also
known as the Colombo School of Poetry) and the poetry that originated in the 19th century.
Contemporary scholars who review the literature of Sri Lanka opine that the trend in modern
literature set in after 1815. The main reason for this was that the division of the Sinhala literary
eras was defined according to the capital of the kingdom, 1815 being the date when the capital
shifted to Colombo when the British annexed the whole of Sri Lanka.
Chandrasiri Palliyaguru's
study regarding the emergence of the Colombo Poets' era in his article 'The Sinhalese verses of
the 20th century' ( Visivana Siyavasē Sinhala Kāv yaya
) is illustrative of this. Accordingly, the
conclusion one can draw is that there is a general agreement that the Kandy/Matara eras - that is
from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th ce ntury - are the forerunners of 'the
new poetical era or the Colombo era.
Though there may be some truth in this, it needs further investigation. It was quite evident
that from the middle of the 19th century, signs began to appear of the background necessary for a
new poetical era. There was a strong connection between the printing industry that was
expanding as a commercial enterprise and the new poetical movement that was emerging.
Benedict Anderson (2006) speaking of Europe mentions that at the beginning of the printing
technology, printing of books expanded as a major commercial enterprise which brought in much
profit.
There was a similar parallel in Sri Lanka between money earning enterprises and the
printing of books. Tissa Kariyawasam (1973) says that at the beginning, there were some
entrepreneurs who thought the printing industry was a profitable venture. They went in search of
poets, got them to compose poetry books which they printed and sold or distributed for money.
This printing for profit was not confined only to books of poems, but it applied to all forms of
books. The development of the printing technology in Sri Lanka took place concurrently with the
development of the North Indian printing technology in the 19th century. Francesa Orsini's work
(2009) titled Print and Pleasure, discusses these aspects. As Orsini points out, the development
of the printing industry developed on parallel lines with the North Indian printing industry and
manifested some common characteristics:
A. Books published in different language editions (government text books, fiction, story
books etc.);
B. Books written in more than one language;
C. A few books where the text in the same language was printed in more than one edition;
and
D. The existence of more than one print language in the same market.
This article covers not only some of the poems of then 19th century Ceylon, but a number of
books in different languages and subjects. They can be categorized under Sinhala, Tamil and
English languages.
Text books on religion, medicine, astrology and poetry come under these
categories. After the middle of the 19 th century, in North Indian society, books were published as
pilgrimage guides, prayer books and other religious publications.
Moreover, there were books
published on general subjects which fell under different categories, as follows:
01. Oral performance - either listening to performers or a song sung by a singer;
02. Reading aloud – this kind of reading was mostly done at home, among family members
and neighbours;
03. An almost silent one in which the reader moved his or her lips, mouthing but not uttering
the words – this kind of silent reading was used for religious books and prayers; and
04. Silent reading – when reading fiction such as novels.
These new poetic traditions emerged to cater to the tastes of the new reading public in the then
Ceylon society, whose inclination to literature was well-known by that time. The changes in
society definitely contributed to the changes in poetical traditions, and it marked the beginning of
a major change in Sinhalese literature.
In the 19th century, particularly after the 1870s, a new
generation of readers for the novel came up.
With the increase of both poetry and novels,
especially the birth of modern verse, the background required for such literature to flourish was
provided by the printing technology.
Religious Faith and Beliefs in Deities as Expressed in Poetry
Classical poems like Kāvyaśekara, Guttila K āvya (Kotte Period 1412–1597), begin by invoking
the blessings of the Triple Gem (the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha), and also blessings
and refuge of the deities were invoked after presenting a list of names of the deities. This was a
common pattern followed by almost all the writers of poetry during and after the Kotte era. The
poet's objective was to invoke blessings and protection for all human beings and to save them
from all evil effects that might fall on them.
The Kotte period poem titled Ka v Lakuṇ u
Miṇimal was composed adhering to auspicious moments.
In the Siyabas Mal Dama, after
completing the preliminary requirements, the poet seeks the blessings of the deities.
bamba surapati suraguru nātha
nabasara sirisara saratara bara neta
bambakata ada häma suraṅgana kara meta
suba seta dī raku me häma lova sata
"Brahma, Jupiter, Pattini Dēvi, May all these deities bless and protect human beings".
There were instances when the deities were invoked for assistance to avoid faults in the metrical
combination of syllables in their compositions.
nitara devindune oba pihiai mema a
nitara dinen dina set dī rakinu tua
nitara memage kividosa duru karannaa
patala karami oba guṇa siyalu satahaa
"Deity, give us your continuous assistance. Give us your daily blessings and protect us.
Always (help me to) get rid of the faults in my verses. I will continue to spread your virtues
among all beings".
The most popular female deity in the Kandyan era was Pattini.
The cult of Goddess
Pattini was transmitted from South India, and the literature based on that cult had spread to Sri
Lanka.
It is to be also noted that the very last rulers of the Kandyan kingdom (1469–1815)
were Nayakkar Tamils. At the end of the 19th century, we come across instances when Pattini's
blessings were invoked.
sidda daham Pattini Sāmi asanu
sadda gī nä um kelipuda obaa ganu
vädda nodī ena uvaduru dura harinu
sidda salan salamin ā vā lana
"O Pattini, the pure and noble, listen to me, kindly accept this song and dance. Save us from the
calamities that befall us" .
sasaga siyal bambalova vasana deiviyani
uraga gurul yak bū nara asurayi ni
nolaga laga vasana diyagoḍa savsatuni
samaga me pin anumodan vanu sama sitini
This poem invokes the deities who live on land and sea, to allow spirits, demons, creeping
and mythical creatures to rejoice in her merit, and transfer the merits to their parents.
dasa masa kusa vädu mavunat – rasa äti bojun dun mage piyanat
äsadun vilasa sat dun mage gurunat – tosakara pin demi nivan daki nat
"Give some of your merit, Oh deity, to my mother who carried me in her womb for ten
months, to my father who gave me tasty food, to my teachers who opened my eyes".
These characteristics can be seen usually in the poetry of the Mahanuwara (Kandy 1469–
1815) and Matara periods (1706-1815). It appears that the poets engaged in the composition of
verses, bestowed merit on the deities and all beings and wished that they would protect them in
return. Thus, it is evident that poetry had a powerful, undertone of the beliefs the people had in
divine beings.
From the beginning of Sinhalese metrical literature, one could find that the compositions
had a Buddhist flavour. The concept of peden budu sirita (expressing the life of the Buddha in
poetical works) continued to prevail until the end of the Mahanuwara (Kandy) era. Folk poets
thought that preaching dhamma in versified form would bestow merit and was a path to heaven.
Poets who composed classical verses set their minds on Jātaka stories and found ideal plots for
their compositions in the genre. The history of Sinhalese verse stories can be traced as far back
as the 12th century CE. The Muvadevdā vata and the Sasadāvata (Polonnaruwa Period 1017-
1215 CE) are two classical poems that belong to this tradition.
The classical writers of prose and verse realized that expressing the virtues of the Buddha was
the most difficult task.
hägim mā menen guṇahimiyā kiyann a a
pohom nel sina unā palandin hot tusara hara
"To make an effort to extol the virtues of the Buddha was such a difficult task like making a
garland of flowers from dew drops and wearing it around one's neck".
munidu guṇa maharu
"The virtues of the Buddha are invaluable".
ma a mage näṇa pama ṇ a
"I shall try within the limits of my knowledge".
kebandu da gatahot munidunge baṇa me
kividu basin kavi karaṇā puda me
bilindu ḷadaruvan keḷinā kala me
taridu alla mäi kala tät väni me
"To express the virtues of the Buddha in the language of the poets is as difficult a task as infants
trying to touch the moon".
abaluvakin vivara
näṇa nimanu bäri samudura
mama mage näṇa vivara
kiyami ätimut varada häradura
"It is impossible to measure the water in the ocean with a mustard seed. I am expressing this
according to my knowledge. What is wrong with that?"
emahe vanum näṇa
abäak pamaṇa men
"My knowledge of praise is as small as a grain of mustard".
vijaya bā pirivena
kiyana baṇa me asan satosina
Certain classical poets, who had used Jātaka stories in their poems, sometimes advised the people
to listen to baṇ a that they preached in versified form.
satadat kivindune
makiyana vadan valine
varadak koa no gene
asava budu bana savan demine
"Poets listen to my words. Without taking offence, listen to the virtues of the Bu ddha" .
munisanda guṇa mahata
asan viyatuni yomā sa vanat
"Listen, oh learned men attentively to the great virtues of the Buddha".
pavuhära pin karaṇu lesin
sav sama baṇa saga tosin
kiviyara yäda tosin
teruvana nämanda manäsin
musu Sinhala basin
kiyam me baṇa asav satosin
"While paying homage to the Triple Gem mentally, listen happily to the ba ṇa that is preached in
mixed Sinhalese language".
With the expansion of the printing industry, poets were able to find new subjects on
which to compose poems. However, poets who preferred traditional folk lore, focused on the
virtues of the Buddha to express their devotion. Some poets described the virtues of the Buddha
in their poetry with the intention of cultivating good qualities in society.
Controversies and Avoiding Errors in Poetry
Many poets were aware that there might be some mistakes either at the initial stages or at the
final stages of their compositions that could lead to accusations directed at them by their reading
public. Thus, they composed poetry being conscious about this.
The enthusiasm that was
aroused by the controversy called savsat dam vādaya continued until the second half of the 19th
century and it had a considerable repercussion on the poets. It was evident that the savsat dam
vādaya had a strong influence on the 19th century poets' way of creative thinking. Therefore,
savsat dam vādaya, and its background needs to be discussed at some length here. A critical
knowledge concerning Buddhist subjects and various other causes sparked the controversies
precipitated by scholars. Different types of controversies had been rampant among bhikkhus
even at the Anuradhapura era (circa 3rd century BCE to 10th century CE).
Yet, it is not easy to
find documentary evidence about such debates that took place in the middle of the 19th century.
Nevertheless, considering the large number of controversies which sprang on various subjects,
it is not incorrect to name this period as a period of controversies.
The social, political and the
economic changes during this particular period were the main reasons that influenced various
types of controversies. These controversies stemmed from manifold causes, led to several serious
changes in the society. It brought about a considerable change in the way of thinking of the
people. Though controversies that occurred at that time can be categorized into literature,
religion, and caste, the majority of them were based on religion.
As a result of these
controversies, a large number of periodicals of various types proliferated.
Of the religious
controversies, special mention should be made of the five great debates with the Christians,
because it was through these debates that an unprecedented Buddhist revival occurred in the 19th
century Sri Lanka. It is a well-known fact that in these religious controversies, doctrinal matters
were frequently a subject of insult.
Nevertheless, the controversies that took place between
Christians and Buddhists indirectly resulted in enriching the Sinhalese language and literature.
Through the translations of some English documents like Olcott's Catechism, the Sinhala
language was also enriched.
As a result of the religious and educational renaissance brought
about by Väliviṭa Saranaṅkara in the 18th century in reviving the upasampadā and the higher
Buddhist learning after the Portuguese destructions of the 16th and 17th centuries, learning and
knowledge spread, both in the up country and the low country. Pupils of Venerable Saranaṅ kara
played a great role in spreading Sinhalese literature and Budhism at that time.
(However, by the
middle half of the 19th century, it had degenerated to a certain extent.) Learning and knowledge
that remained dormant was again enlivened as a result of the controversies that arose among the
bhikkhus on matters relating to Buddhism. Of the controversies on religion, the two most
famous were Adhiṃāsa Vādaya and Pārupana Vādaya.
If the sīmā or boundaries are confused,
it defiles the extreme purity of the upasampadā ceremony. As a result of the debates between the
bhikkhus residing in the Asgiri temple and the Malvatu temple, two books titled Sī ma Saṅkara
Vinodanī and Sī mā Sa ṅ kara Chedanī were written. It is shown that these were written not
exclusively on the subject relating to controversies, but with the intention of promoting learning
and knowledge.
Some of these books were written in reply to the divisions in nikāyas and also
different issues concerning them. Among these books were: Sangabat Beduma (1896) Vivāda
Vinodaniya (1899), Namaskāra Vāda Vid āraṇaya (1899), V ādārambhaka Saṅ grahaya (1900),
Bhikkhu Sīlaya (1893), Sāmagri Darś aṇ aya (1897) Baddha Sīma Viniścaya (1901).
Scholars at
that time commented on matters relating to doctrine as found in the Tripiaka and A uvāva and
tried to establish their own views and opinions pertaining to them. The bhikkhus who were quite
conversant with the Tripi aka had such an extensive knowledge, which was a great advantage for
them in their debates with the Christian priests.
Therefore, bhikkhus were inclined to discuss
philosophical issues that have not been touched by the Chritians.
Also there arose a number of
literary debates during that period which made beneficial influence on Sinhala literature at that
time. The biggest controversy that arose on a matter of academic interest was the Ga ṅgārohaṇa
Varṇanāva (1806) which resulted in the savsat dam vāda ya .
Savsat Dam Vādaya Controversy
In the first half of the 19th century, Davith de Saram of Matara, an eminent devotee,
organized
a great religious ceremony called the gaṅgārohaṇ a pinkama in the Matara Nilvala Ganga. Based
on this grand event, a book of poems called Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva was composed. Although
the poems in the book are described as gaṅ garu Va ṇanā ,
the book of poems became famous as
the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva . At the end of the book, the poet identifies himself as Govikule
Samarasekera Dissanayake.
The poet presents two reasons for composing the poem. With the use of metres, the poet
hopes to generate in the common man an aesthetic delight and appreciation, as well as Buddhist
virtues in them. The other reason, according to him, was to glorify and appreciate the noble
deeds of Saram Mudali who initiated the religious ceremony that inspired the writing of the book
of poems. In the first decade of the 19th century, there had been prolonged discussions on the
usage of orthography and alliteration in composing verses. The debates that arose concerning one
stanza of the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva dragged on throughout the whole century and were able
to kindle a vibrant literary awakening. Mihiripenne Dharmaratana Thero (1806) pointing out
some faults in the arrangement of syllables in the first stanza of the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva,
led to a serious controversy on poetics. Many learned scholars of the 19 th century were involved
in this controversy which came to be known as savsat dam vādaya. Wh en considering the
persons who participated in this controversy, it becomes clear that some have joined the debate
out of their interest in learning and the arts, while some have joined to exhibit their pedantry and
pride.
Abeysinghe Mudali challenged Mihiripenna Thero twice to point out the faults in the
verses. The faults Mihiripenna Thero pointed out were not related to the sentiments expressed in
the poem, which should have been regarded as its essence, but due to some technical defects
such as the incorrect arrangement of syllables.
Thus, it was apparent that the motive of those
who got involved in this controversy was to exhibit their learning that could enhance their
personal image. However, this controversy can be treated as a blessing as it brought to surface
many elements related to the composition of poetry such as errors in prosody, and other matters,
opinions and different views, weaknesses in grammar, incorrect use of alien languages, the need
to study eastern languages, religious ideas and opinions, etc.
The savsat dam vādaya which began in 1807 had been forgotten for some time, but
reappeared for the second time creating a tremendous awakening in Sinhala literature. James de
Alwis's Sidat Sa ṅgarāva, written in English and published in 1851, states in its introduction that
poet Dissanayake's intention was correct and Mihiripenna Thero's views were wrong and show
the incorrect places in the two stanzas.
As James de Alwis' book was written in English, most
of the Sinhalese scholars who had very little knowledge of English would have taken some time
to grasp comprehensively the reasons given in it. Some people because of the criticism of de
Alwis spoke disparagingly of Mihiripenne Dharmaratana Thero and slighted his education and
knowledge of poetry.
By the time these views emerged, Mihiripenne Dharmaratana Thero was
no longer living, and therefore, his student Koggala Dhammatilake (1851) took up the cause of
his preceptor. This bhikkhu disrobed later, but came to be regarded as the leading debater in the
savsat dam vādaya.
After James de Alwis' criticism began, arguments of both sides in the
debate were used in the year 1854, but as there was nobody to pass judgment on the debate, it
came to an end inconclusively.
The Influence on Poetical literature
It was quite evident that the savsat dam vādaya exerted a strong influence on the poetical
literature of the 19th century. Partly due to this reason, Sinhala poetry became interesting to the
reader. After the 1850s, the printing industry made major strides and its contribution to these
debates was immeasurable. It should be specially mentioned that from the beginning, newspapers
and magazines gave prominence to these debates. It was due to these debates that the magazines
like Yatalaba (1854) and Sās trālaṅkāraya (1853) were published. Koggala Dhammatilake Thero
and Sitinamaluve Dharmarama Thero wrote many articles to the S āstrālaṅkāra magazine.
It
was a scholar named D. K.P. Ubayasekera, who at the beginning, wrote a number of articles in
the Sāstrālaṅkāraya challenging the views of Dharmaratana Thero. From April 1854, similar
articles continued to appear in the Yatalaba magazine edited by Pandit Batuwantudawe. Many
people who took part in the debate wrote under pseudonyms. There is no doubt that many
learned scholars of that time were involved in these debates. The Yatalaba magazine was started
mainly for the purpose of continuing this debate, and articles of Batuwantudawe as well as James
de Alwis on the debate may have appeared under pseudonyms.
A verse published in
Sāstrālaṅkāra reveals that Ubayasekera was the pseudonym of Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero.
"The verses published under the name of Ubayasekera were no doubt composed by Hikkaduwe
Sumangala Thero".
It is quite interesting to find that Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero had joined the debate.
From his childhood, he had displayed a penchant for various subjects relating to language and
education. With the beginning of the middle half of the 19th century, many people who were
erudite in languages showed a great interest in Sinhalese poetry, and Hikkaduwe Sumangala
Thero.
He was an opponent of the Saram camp (party) and did not hesitate to show how
incorrect their views and opinions were.
It is especially important to note that when learned
bhikkhus in the calibre of Koggala Dhammatilake and Hikkaduwe Sumangala got involved in
this debate, many lay people too were dragged into it. Through this debate, a powerful challenge
was aimed at the status of bhikkhus for being involved in literary activities. A handwritten note
by the Christian James de Alwis who was actively involved in this debate was found (the
handwritten commission) on 01.12.1853, which reads:
dam rada sasunamralasa sadev yasas mutu
dam soṅda lesa digambu nurata lakala dimutu
dam pada hasala novitara satahu mitu
dam nada yati nadana däka me pata diya yutu
"The Dhammananda doctrine which nobody has learnt, shines in many forms in the sāsana
which is as boundless as the sky. Give this note to Dhammananda Thero when you meet him".
"… In view of the blessings that are sent … you have not written about any of the reasons
mentioned in my letter to you. You are very immature. But if I debate with you ... this time the
merit will go to Batuwantudawe guru's pupil James de Alwis".
In the course of this controversy, James de Alwis has subjected Dhammananda Thero to a
cynical treatment using Dam Nada, the pseudonym of the latter.
Most people believe that modern Sinhala literary criticism begins with the savsat dam
vādaya.
Yet, from the middle of the 19th century, many features of the Western literature can be
found in our literature. Criticism of poetry was one of these. In the Preface to the English
translation of the Sidat Saṅgarāva, James de Alwis (1823-1878) claims that it was the first book
written on the subject of criticism of poetry. In his literary criticisms, he had adopted theories of
criticism of poetry as well as other supporting theories of literary criticism prevalent in some
Western countries.
Thus, a bilingual scholar like James de Alwis' criticism of savsat dam
vādaya was influenced by theories of Western literary criticism.
In the first decades of the 20th
century, inspired by Alwis, there were several writers who took to literary criticism and editing
classical works. Among them were W.S. Gunawardena, Mendis Gunasekera, Martin
Wickremasinghe and Kumaratunga Munidasa. Following in the footsteps of Wasala Mudali
Gunawardena who showed an interest in literature, subsequent scholars like Kumaratunga drew
inspiration from these debates to criticize classical literature.
The participants in this debate
without using the mixed language found in classical literature, used the language that was in
common parlance, and it was the first time that such language was used for literary purposes.
Another notable feature was that the 20th century poets used a very appropriate, simple language
in their writings and the Sinhala language was moulded as a result of this debate.
kaḍiyan tuḍuvan uḍ a vasa piri se
eḍiyen däyen doḍavana vila se
väḍiyen maḍa pän bī vel pede se
mäḍiyan baka bakaye haṅḍa dena se
päduru kapana mīyan hā samānan -----------
"These persons talk with great courage. The more they talk and make noises, the more they
resemble the frogs that live in the paddy fields drinking mud and water, and the rats that gnaw on
the mats".
pi a paa gasamin audin surāpāna sālā
kaa mäta gonnak rā bomin matava ulā
kaa keḷa räule hosse konen väk kerilā
koa koa ävidin gen geat kolā halā
"Drinking toddy and getting intoxicated with spit dripping down the beard and face, go from
house to house and make a commotion".
On account of the fact that the debaters used a large number of words unfamiliar to the
Sinhala language, they were subjected to very strong criticism by some learned scholars. Their
opinion was that when composing verses, poets should draw inspiration from the language found
in classical literature.
Thus, the use of simple spoken language in writings could be found in
many books of verses. As one would see, the savsat dam vādaya had exerted a strong influence
to build up to this situation. To establish their own views and opinions, the debaters had quoted
frequently from classical literature, both prose and verse. This aroused a keen interest among the
people to read the classical literature, which was already available in print.
This debate paved
the way for the appearance of a number of books written on controversies. It was due to these
books that the readers' curiosity was greatly aroused about reading and writing.
In the books
on debates coming under our review, there are instances of personal attacks trying to discredit
each other. Another notable feature is that the savsat dam vādaya contributed indirectly to revive
subjects like prosody and ornateness in poetry.
There was no continuous tradition of ornate
poetry despite the proliferation of the printing industry. Especially in the Mahanuwara and
Matara periods, metre in stanzas was a popular feature. In the savsat dam vādaya, it was seen
that the debaters made use of both prose and verse and there were occasions when they mixed
metre in stanzas. On some occasions, it was obvious that they paid no attention to metre. The
fact that they paid no attention to meter had influenced other contemporary poets too.
Particularly in the 20th century to express new experiences, there arose a need to seek new metres
and sometimes to disregard metres altogether.
Some people opine that it is a misnomer to state
that the controversy over the savsat dam vādaya led the way to literary criticism. Nevertheless,
it is evident that the beginning of modern literary criticism emerged with this controversy.
It
was due to this debate, that people became aware of the existence of certain criteria to be applied
in literary criticism.
During this period, poets used various devices to avoid their poetry being
criticized by others.
The savsat dam vādaya seems to have a direct influence on the poets of
that period. In the 19 th century, writers who composed verses were largely influenced by the
Gaṅgārohaṇa Varṇanāva. Between the end of the 19 th century and the first half of the 20th
century, there sprang a large number of poems describing the various meritorious acts performed
during that period, and those poems reflected a direct influence of the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a
Varṇanāva.
In the past, kings contributed generously to promote the development of classical Sinhala
literature. Some literary works were written at the request of those kings. However, after 1505
CE, foreign invasions disrupted the whole social system and as a result, the kings as well as their
officials had no time to take an interest in the sphere of literature. But, later this situation
changed. At the beginning of the 19 th century, the literary awakening in the south was spurred on
by the students of Väli viṭ a Sa ṅ ghar āja Thero who had reintroduced Buddhist higher learning.
The resident bhikkhus of the pirivenas and the leading Sinhala Buddhists such as Mudliyars and
Muhandirams, who served under the British government at that time, were the leading figures of
this movement.
Nevertheless during the Mahanuwara and Matara periods, high ranking
personnel, in order to project their image in society, extended patronage to various social events.
Thus, certain people who had gained prominence in the 19 th century sometimes did not hesitate
to extend their patronage to religious and social activities. Several notable families who hailed
from the south, extended their unstinted patronage to bring about a revival in the spheres of
literary, religious and social activities. Outstanding among them were the lineages of Vidagama,
Samarakoon, Don Lawrence Navaratne, Illangakoon, Saram Mudali, Don Simon Dissanayake,
Wijesinghe and Gajanayake. It is clear that some of those leading personages extended their
patronage voluntarily to many of the poetical works that come under our scrutiny. The fact that
the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva had received the special patronage of Saram Mudali, may have
prompted other persons to extend their patronage to similar books of verses. The generation of
students of Väliviṭa Saṅ gh ar āja Thero achieved what they wanted by way of the savsat dam
vādaya. To this category belonged Sitinamaluwe Dhammajoti, Karatota Dharmarama, Saliele
Maniratana, Wiragule Guru, Walpola Guru and others. The educational activities that expanded
into Sabaragamuwa and some parts of the Western province continued to develop until the 19th
century.
Nevertheless, the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva, the result of which was savsat dam
vādaya, manifested not only the creative characteristics of the renaissance initiated by Väliviṭ a
Saranaṅ kara Thero, but also had several other far-reaching characteristics.
Those who participated in the savsat dam controversy also went on further to discuss such
technicalities as ancient metres, poetic embellishments etc. To express their own ideas, they
frequently used verse rather than prose. Since it was a new experience that kindled the interest of
the reading public, for those who had the talent to compose, it was an inducement for them to test
their creativity. In the 19th century, poetic compositions on various subjects were written on the
inspiration of the sav sat dam vādaya, and it subsequently created a great impact on the creations
of the later poets. Nevertheless, most of the books of verses published could not reach that
standard set by classical poets. The reason for this was that some poets wanted only to send
across their message to the reader paying scant regard to the quality of their poetry. In classical
poetical literature, although the poets made no deliberate attempt to evade criticism, poets of the
Kotte period seemed to be quite sensitive to such criticism.
basa dosa ätat e da
"If there are any errors in the language, …"
dunot hasekua vara
kiridiya ekaa vat kara
diyära kiribonu yura
dosära guṇaya a ganimi paṅḍivara
"To separate flaws from poetry and take only what is correct is like giving a swan milk and
water and expecting it to separate the milk from the water and drink it".
yut at misak dosätak mehi noma rägena
met sit bejetvā kav rasaya viṅdi mina
"Take what is proper or just, reject what is improper or unjust, and enjoy these verses with a
compassionate mind".)
me dän kiyana kavi duu varadakine
metin kam vadā muniguna bä vine
"If there are any flaws in this poetry, bear up those with a compassionate mind".
jalayen kiri venkara bona hasa raja vilasin nuvanina
saruvan rut ganimin dos duralavā yuhu sulu no vaina
"In the manner of a swan separating milk from water, discard the errors and take only the
precious meaning".
One comes across certain classical poets of previous centuries who occasionally appealed
to the readers to appreciate any merit they found in their poems.
itidu hota kiyam guṇalobini lohimiya
menehi varada nobajav guṇekät nam mehi nobajav
"I praise the Buddha's merits and speak highly about his virtues. If there are any errors in these
verses, do not worry about those. Take only the virtue in those, if there is any".
Some poets made an effort to write poetry using similes and discarding the flaws.
kiyan neda yavahan ära ivataa
miyen mekavipada matupat dahasaa
"Read these verses after discarding what is unnecessary so that in the future, thousands can
enjoy them".
The poet of Bentara Lakara's wish was that his poems should reach only the good and
desirable people and not the undesirable people. During that period, it was sometimes apparent
that criticism was not tolerated.
ese heyin me māge gärahī men
dos vikramhi sitän u
pudana satasatan vilhi nogos met guṇen yut
sudana sudana sa ňda räshi gos kelitvā satosnen
("Therefore, my poetry should not go into the hands of undesirable people, but only to those
who are virtuous and compassionate".
It is clear that from some of their statements, these writers had an understanding not only of
creative verses, but also about rhyme, prosody, rhetoric etc.
"Many important people condemn my poetry. According to gaṇayo (an insulting term used for
bhikkhus coming from the period after the Portuguese destruction when there were not fully
ordained bhikkhus), this verse of four lines has not followed the rules of prosody".
It was
apparent that critics did not have much room for criticism like this when poetry was getting
rooted in the society as a popular form of literature. By the end of the 19th century, one could see
that poetry had earned itself a position in the society as a medium of communication.
Usage of Language, Traditions and the Emergence of New Trends
When studying the poetical works of the 19 th century, it is very important to pay attention to the
use of language. The Siyabaslakara (9th century CE) shows the manner in which poetic words
should be arranged through poetic license. The dictum rasavat saňdahā savan piya bas
shows
how words should be used in poetry. Even when poetic literature was first initiated, poets were
very concerned about the level of erudition and errors occurring in poetic language. The
admonition in the Siyabaslakara was that composing poetry should be done by using the
Siyabasa (vernacular) only.
However, one can find a mixture of languages in the compositions
of later poets.
Books such as Hansa Sandēsaya reveal that in the Kotte era, poets used pure
Sinhalese as well as a hybrid language mixed with Sanskrit in their compositions. In the history
of the evolution of the present-day Sinhala language, the impact of other languages such as Pali,
Sanskrit, Tamil, Portuguese, Dutch, and English can be seen easily. It is clear that these
languages, one by one, did not contribute much to the evolution of the Sinhala language, and the
extent of the influence of such languages was limited.
From the first half of the 16th century for
about one and a half centuries, the coastal areas of Sri Lanka were governed by the Portuguese
who spread Catholic beliefs by force under the direct instructions from the Pope in the form of
Papal Bulls; after them, the Protestant Dutch governed the same areas; finally for about another
one and a half centuries, the whole country was governed by the English who exerted a fairly
strong influence on the language and the culture of the country.
It is a well-known fact that the knowledge of languages declined during the Kandyan
period which was geographically hemmed in by European colonisers. The greatness of
Venerable Saranaṅkara Sangharāja Thero, who ushered in a cultural revival to bring back what
was lost due to European barbarities, brought some hope. Ruled by three foreign nations, the
language and literature of the country at that time became greatly influenced by their language
and literature. Numerous Portuguese, Dutch and English words entered the common man's
vocabulary. Certain contemporary scholars who did research on alien influences in the Sinhala
language have written several articles on this subject. The Orientalist (Vol, 1223 & Voll. ll,
11.155), which carried an article titled 'Influence of the Portuguese and Dutch Languages on the
Sinhalese and Tamils' by Mudhouse, was one such article. However, some Portuguese, Dutch
and English words that had entered the common man's phraseology could be seen in most of the
poems composed during that period (19th century). Because of the influence of the lineage of
South Indian Nayakkār kings on the Kandyan kingdom, many Tamil words crept into the
colloquial as well as written Sinhala. Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that Tamil words had
infiltrated the Sinhala language from the Dambadeni period onwards. Accordingly, we should
recognize that South Asian classical languages like Pali and Sanskrit, and Western languags like
Portuguese, Dutch and English, and in addition the Tamil language, had to a certain extent,
influenced the poetry of the 19th century. The triad named Piyummā l ā , Nam Ruvan Mā l ā ,
Nāmāvaliya (Kotte Period) contained the names of the books that were helpful for poets to
improve their poetry as well as their education. Since the appearance of Kavu Lakuṇu Miṇimal in
the 15th century up to the first half of the 19th century, not a single book on poetics appeared
which could be explained by the destruction of the culture due to colonial oppression.
Nevertheless, to compose verses, poets used a mixture of pure Sinhala words and words
borrowed from foreign languages. This mixture of Sinhala and non-Sinhala words was used
purely with the intention of making the language simple for the common man to easily
understand. Poets of that period generally used the classical language to compose their verses.
Controversies on religion and language that took place during this period paved the way to form
an idiomatic language that influenced other literary creations as well. However, this idiomatic
language changed to simple Sinhala according to the prevailing times as depicted in Hikkaduwe
Thero's letters and articles relating to his debates.
Since some Sinhala writers had received an
English education, a few English words were inadvertently borrowed.
To illustrate this, it is
necessary to cite examples from poetry books written during that period. It is not possible to
show how English poetry exerted a direct influence on the poetry of Sinhala writers of the 19 th
century. Nevertheless, it is evident that there had been diverse influences for the spread of the
English medium education in Sri Lankan society. During the British rule, it was but natural to
have knowledge of English. It helped English speaking people to assert a higher position in the
colonial society. An admixture of English words also helped Sinhala writers to master alliteration
in poetry.
bristol räsvoränti namäti hotel eke
'm aster' kage 'post' eke sii Jecob nam ū
'm ist' saha G.T. Wijesekara mäti tos ū
' l uster' lesa 'open' kaḷa vesesin 'very good'
'bristol räsvoränti nam hotel ekak disu'
aviya a mātrā madi unāa ka a a mihiri rasa kohinda
istäil lesaa meun karatta pia nägilā
räkam nova virājita mā siri vatu ti
äsme ataa bamavā puňgilo balati
biskat källak suratin rägena kati
isket vi nam häragena yam se yuvati
On some occasions, it is seen that English words were used to give alliteration to the verses:
rahas pahas doḍamin piyama sinā - sudu
digäs petät mahatun sakala sinā-
"that is nice" kiyamin risi lesa sinā - äsū
"what is price" kiyamin melaga sinā
"rascal" kiyā sarosin bani nne
sāstara räsin dāḍiya helanne
"yes very fine" aise kiyanne
"who's that" kiyā danayen asanne
"Scolding angrily and saying "rascal", casting curses and swearings, saying "yes, very fine,
I say". Asking "whose is that?" from the people".
By these images the poet, was especially successful in drawing a picture of the then
contemporary society. The verses titled The Colombo Horse Race
can be taken as a good
example for this. Here, the writer tries to express the kind of language used by various
nationalities that flocked to watch horse racing in Colombo. Here, the writer has been able to
communicate to the reader something about the infiltration of Western culture and attitudes to
Ceylonese society. Though the writer has tried to show the widespread use of alcohol and the
various inroads against the traditional culture, he never attempted to criticize these.
"see that joki very clever" kiyamin duvanno
bīmatkamin väni väni pasekin si inno
"v ā v ā dore" kiya kiyā velaň dam karanne
meles balā iňda yalit satuin pinanno
"try this girl very fine aise" kiyanno
ukgas doḍam tämbili ä mila dī räganno
sarvat bibīsumituran samagin saranno
" sī ni mari" kiya kiyā pasekin balanno
These verses did not convey a precise meaning. However, borrowing words from the
English language, even Malay words as "sīni mari" (Come here) and mixing them with the
Sinhala was a feature of the literary style in the colonial context, and it led to a cultural
mishmash.
To present his ideas, the poet sometimes tried to go beyond the folk traditions by also
introducing some ornate descriptions. Poets, who had been influenced by the classical verse
traditions, began to show their creative talents in this manner.
ran pä hasev piyayuran kusuman patin dul
pun rū sirin helaňganan samagin youn pat
bimhi pasan bäsa riyn ävidin nolas vi
lansi tosin doḍa doḍā si iyo pasekhi
"Beautiful young women with figures and breasts resembling golden swans wearing shining
bands of glittering flowers, get down from cars and stand aside talking in the Burgher language".
siri däru katek audin särasī yehena
si tauru balanakala neka turaňgun duvana
piyauru väsuma ivataa u bava nodäna
vilibiru nätiva si iyai senmäda pämina
"While a lovely woman with adornments had been watching the horses runnin g, her breasts got
exposed. Unaware of it, she stood among the crowd quite shamelessly".
This shows that the poet had the freedom to choose the language he liked when composing
verses. It is evident from some verses that the poets were influenced by both the folk tradition as
well as the classical tradition. The poetry of that period (19th century) reveals that people in that
society were very conscious about superstitions such as the cawing of crows and the crying of
geckos.
Meanwhile, there were occasions when Tamil words like sokari were used in folk
tales.
Here is an example of Tamil words used in some verses as in the case of the folk play
Sokari.
kanna ḍi kaudiya kāpiri de se
ponnaḍi polauru doluvara dese
sannasi urumusi kosala dese
nanuru solī ra a däka ehi melese.
Poets were inclined to use Tamil words to show the disposition of Muslim and Tamil people and
their social background.
tambināne marikkāre hajji lebbe ennakāriya
minna tambi dore nāne enna seyyo poga vāriya
menna melesa kiyā yon käla ekatu vī karaganḍa dahiriya
yanḍa giyā säma kiyā pasudina balava liya gäna karan kāriya
From verses of this type, it is clear that the poet did not want to be creative, but just to report the
incident in versified form. These poets had no clear idea about how to use the language
appropriately, as is seen here. Nevertheless, they were quite concerned about the alliteration in
their verses. The rhythm was there, but no originality that could be appreciated. Sanskrit words
were used freely on several occasions.
uvana puṇḍar ī ka sanda upasobita
nayana nīlotpala varṇa supuṣ pita
There were occasions when instead of using the dental 's', the palatal 's' has been used in the
compositions.
asav sämadena nagā desavana
sätinan
dikurupaiyat
It shows that the poet has used the idiom of the ordinary man. He has given priority to
ornateness, and not to poetic quality in language. In composing verses, the poet should select
words that fit into the theme.
Just because a poet uses spoken language, he would not be able
to create a poetic language. A poet should be able to use the appropriate language in his
compositions.
In poetic language, morphology and rhetorics take the first place. Morphology
in poetic language exists when the poet uses appropriate words.
The author of the
Siyabaslakara mentions that the words a poet applies have a devine power - dev bas,
siyal
vadanun,
saňda vätup ras, bas kätatelehi,
are obvious examples that are appropriate here.
Yet, in that period (19th century), there were many instances to show that poets applied language
without any appropriateness.
a te kabara äti lombudāyakayā samagin pirisak
hite tibuṇu garumanbindi katikāvak
käte nisā kiyā gänuma bäruva mita karana deyak
site auru hängunā lesa giye ya lombugen paḍeya
paḍe duganda nisā seben i v at kaleya lombā
hädeta Jūjakayāv at ratunet palabimbā
vade nitara pukakasamin giye uvana pumbā
aḍe ivata yava kiyamin nerapi eyen lombā
"A crowd gathers around a toothless contributor with spotted hands. They have a conversation
with him. They pretend he is not ugly and listen to him and then he farts. Because of the smelly
fart, they remove the toothless man from the assembly. As he is always scratching his back, they
say "Get away from here", and chase him away".
The expressions used in these verses were crude and "indecent", the type that was not
found in earlier poetry. The words such as paḍ e, pukakasamin, aḍe, lombā are used by the
people of the lowest ranks in society and not in polite society and hitherto literary circles. This
poetic tradition would have been popular among some strata of the common man because of the
usage of such vulgar words. The words usabayā, ta amalā are used in the verses given below
seem to have been acceptable to the common man during that time.
ekalā ' usabayā' väḍ a maha sa ṅ ga saba a
nimalā suragurev damdesanā so nda a
patalā 'nänatilak' yatinduge uvana tua
däkalā biya v elā seda divi tama gäbaa
("At that time, the mo ḍayā (fool) came to the Mahā Sangha and seeing the face of Gnanatilake
Thero, who was as wise as Jupiter, became frightened and went immediately to his room".)
ā ve huṅgak taamalā guru hā tamange
vāden jayak läbagena udavan paninai
"He came here after many attempts to debate with his guru (teacher). He thought he could
win and jumped joyfully".
During this period, the Kusa Jātaka was written in verse form, but before that, a number of
classical works had already been written on the same Jātaka during the Anuradhapura and
Dambadeniya periods. Despite the existence of these classics, this is how the Kusa Jātaka story
had been presented in verse form.
in a bäriya Pabāvatī dakinnaa onä ya
yana kiuya ätpattiya hä iya a hiapiya
ina putunu ätgogouvek se to hiapiya
yana yamuya ätun balannaa mage yeheliya
"I can't wait without seeing Pabāvati, Then my son, go and wait in the elephant kraal like a
mahout. Let us go and see the elephants, my cousin".
These verses are not composed properly, and they are written in the folk dialect. Poetical
works such as the Kavsilumiṇ a and Kusa Jātaka Kāvya which were written in the Dambadeniya
and Sitavaka periods, but the Kusa Jātaka story (Sitavaka period) was obviously composed with
the intention of narrating the story for the benefit of the ordinary reader. It is clear that by using
unrefined, vulgar language, the high quality of the verses is lost and there is no literary value in
such verses.
The following verses illustrate the low level, to which the language degraded in
that period.
äti namut varada tamusege mā namaa
giya namut pihiavemi puluvan duraa
gala numut pälei ma a van so dukaa
vikuṇatot ganimi tana deka rupiyalaa
"Even if you have done any wrong, I will help you as far as I can. My sorrow is so great that it
can even split a rock. If you are selling your breasts, I will buy both for a rupee".
sin ā sisī mage ratran kelle
"Keep smiling my golden one".
pem ā mahimi rusiren rankurullā
säma dinama pinavami inda turullā
uccitam paccitam kī basa situ pätu de novedo
evigasin ohu situpätu deya diväs näti aya kese danīdo
topa visin situdeya läbevā piru sandamen kīven do
nuvanäsin salakā bälu kala kisit väḍ a näti bas novedo
"The Dussīlavata says that the Pali words uccitam paccitam have no meaning. "Aren't the
words uccitam paccitam helping you to get things you wish for? How do people who do not have
the divine eye know what is wished for? May you get what you wish for is like wishing for the
full moon".
As literature reflects the quality of a language, a writer should have a good command of his
language. He should be able to manipulate language according to his discretion. A writer's
cleverness or expertise becomes manifested by the manner in which he manipulates language to
get the optimum effect he intended. To create a meaningful impression on the reader, writers
used various styles of language, depending on the themes they had chosen. Some exhibited their
creativity by using ancient literary language; others by using folk language; and still others by
using the diction of urban culture.
During that period, poets made use of both, the language
of scholars as well as the idiomatic folk dialect and accent while some others used a mixture of
both types in their compositions.
kamala uvana muhulasa ganaba tanahasa
nimala kanaka välitalayaka katiya pasa
komala hasin bäma san karana padesa
demaḷa katek vī nam vindinemi pahasa
" Your face is like a lotus and hair like a black cloud. Hips are like golden sandy plains. If it
were a Tamil woman, I would enjoy her caresses".
ranā kusa nil upul pipisara pabala turu mihilol käti
ganā susinindu sevala ranasak sapiri atapalu mal peti
manā lela dena vimala maldam kumudu rändi niti eka sati
kaṇā liya neta nuduu nata haa mepura liyabalanaa äti
Sometimes, words like mihilol, atapalu mal were used as similes. "Blue lilies blossom,
clusters of bees in trees. Very smooth forest moss is complete with a belt of atapalu flowers.
Nice glittering pure bouquets of white water lilies which a woman has never set eyes on without
longing".
There were occasions when the language of folk poetry was used due to the influence of classical
language.
ikiri nagā sämaa ma vä ḍ iyen tilakā
idiri väḍena piyayuru deka ran tilakā
sapiri baň da a peti gomara yasa ruvakā
apiri novan numba adahana ran mäṇ ik ā
"My younger sister Tikiri is prettier than anyone else. Her young breasts jut out like two golden
dots. The spots around her hips are so attractive. Do not develop a disgust towards your own
Ranmenika" .
Here, simple folk poetic diction has been used. These verses exemplify that there was no
definite or accepted language followed by the poets during that period. They used language
according to their wishes and abilities. During the Matara period, although the poets exihibited
their learning by using language with profound hidden meanings, by the end of the 19th century
that situation seemed to have been relaxed in many ways with very little attention being paid to
such "poetical" language. Poets expressed their inner feelings in simple language. Some poets
did not pay any attention to the appropriateness or inappropriateness of the poetic usages they
adopted.
ra a hära dura gaman yannaa situvādo
maa kara nigā mada yudayen pali de do
pi ata a yana mandak paya deka nora rādo
aapirikara dī umba ma a läbu wādo
"Did you think of leaving the country and taking a long journey?
Why have you insulted me? Will your two feet allow you to go from here? Did I give
aapirikara in a previous birth to get you? "
As one can see, the implied meaning of the phrase a apirikara dī umba maa läbun ā do is
contradictory to the Buddhist doctrine. In the classics of poetical literature, various similes and
metaphors were used to praise or describe a woman's physical features. It was common in
classical verse and prose for writers to praise a woman's physique using various similes such as
the sea, flowers, lotus, stems of lotus, swanlike breasts, and describe physical features in women
like eyebrows, eyes, lips, cheeks, tresses of blue hair, waists as that could be spanned by one's
hands etc. From ancient times to the beginning of the modern period, it was seen that poets used
various similes to praise the beauty of women. In classical literature, vivid similes were used to
describe and praise women's beauty.
sädi soňda lakala sikipil kalabev sunilā
mananada karana yut susinindu digu varalā
sakavan suvaa geleyut sumaa pähäsara
ranada mābaraṇa sädi yuvalakini manahara
ratängili soňduru dala pela lakala hämavia
ratasara saraṇin susädi mana tu a
"Hair as beautiful as the blue peacock's tail. Neck shaped like a conch shell. Fingers like tender
leaves. Feet and hands so tender".
lelei etunu ingan dunu käkula se
bändu varala siki nindumal kara se
pandu dekaki piyayuru ran täi se
"Waist like a bow and breasts like balls in golden discs".
ugulaki numbe detana nam salelu bandinaa
väla n dā simbimin depiyayuru banda sipakara turulu
ka v adā simbindo numbe piyayuru käkulu
"That can trap young men to embrace and kiss them. When can I kiss your tender young
breasts?"
sirigat elandage bämayuga etinā
pähäpat ran ramba pälayaki gahanā
pemā vadana elandage tana lapiru
namā tibū ran täimena sapiru
"Beautiful eyebrows, thighs like golden plantain stems. Full breasts like overturned golden
saucers" .
Although some poets made an effort to use similes like etunu inga dunu käkula se, ugulaki
detana, breasts like two balls, poetically they were unable to express proper sentiments expected
of such similes, hence their attempts became unsuccessful. When studying the history of
poetical literature, a salient feature was the adherence to rules of poetics. The use of metre was
one of the main characteristics in poetics. During the era of Sinhala poetical literature, scholars
classified Sinhala poetry into three periods, namely gī (literally "songs"), verses of four lines
(sivupada ), and stanzas ( silo ). Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Dambadeniya and Kurunegala were
considered as eras of songs (gī ), Gampola, Kotte and Sitavaka as eras of four line verses
(sivupada ), Mahanuwara and Matara period as the era of stanzas ( silo ).
This classification is
made taking into consideration the predominant characteristics of that period. An important
book giving descriptions of Sinhala "songs" and metres is the Elusaň däs laku ṇa (Dambadeniya
Period) which distinguishes differences between songs, verses of four lines, long stories,
parables, and metres. This method of prosody had been influenced by classical prosody.
Even
before the Siyabaslakara and the Elusaňd äs Lakuṇ a , our poets were conversant with the usage of
embellishments and metres. Classical prosody was based mainly on styles and colours. In
Sinhala, prosody styles were more important. While "songs" and four line verses gave
prominence to style, unlike rhymes and pauses in poetry, four line verses had characteristics
different from songs. Poets of the Muvadevudāvata , Sasadāvata and Kavusilumiṇa, drew
inspiration from the Sigiri graffiti, and their poetry had the ability to express deep feelings in a
simple and precise manner. Books on poetics such as Siyabaslakara, Sidat Saňgarāva and
Elusaň däs Laku ṇa were held in high esteem as they helped the poets to express their feelings in
the manner they wished. Nevertheless, since the Sinhala poets' preference for alliteration at the
cost of meaning, led to the degeneration of verse. To express ideas easily, simple four line verses
having characteristics such as alliteration and rhyme started to appear for the first time. Verses of
four lines were considered as the most popular form in the Kotte era and in the genre of
"message- poems" ( sandēśa kāvya), four line verse metres were often used. However, of the
poems written in the Kotte period, Pärakumbā Sirita and E ḷu Silo Śatakaya deviated from the
other poems of that period in respect of theme and style. Although the Pärakumbā Sirita was
metricaly composed with verse of four lines, some of the verses showed the influence of Tamil
rhythm (vannam). One can trace the influence of colourful metres in Sinhala poetry written
during that century.
After the Kotte era, it can be seen that metres were subjected to various
types of experiments. Sometimes, there were occasions when traditional metres were used
erroneously while some learned poets had used the same metres correctly. Some poets paid
attention to the effect of syllables. Poets had earlier paid special attention to the composition of
verses and the establishment of props. Books like Sidat Saňgarāva clearly show that poets paid
attention to a mixture of auspicious and inauspicious syllables in their compositions. In the
Mahanuwara and Matara periods, some poets tried to exhibit their learning by experimenting on
various poetic techniques while paying no attention to traditional metres in composing their
poems. In the poetry that came under our review, it was seen that poets on some occasions have
used both short and long metres. Nevertheless in the case of most verses, it was difficult to
identify a definite metre, but it could be conjectured that those have some semblance of a
traditionally accepted metre. No definite rhythm can be found in the following verse written on
the slaughtering of cows.
dura pänna, pera menna, bärida ne - mehē
karadenna, bärivenna, yana täne - äge
kiribonna, tel kanna, näti ne - pasu
mara minna, mas kanna, deti ne
It was written with five letter words intermittent with short vowels. The metres used in this
verse appear somewhat similar to gaja prosody. In gaja prosody, there are 15 modes (mātras – 5
letter words) or 12 modes.
Here, there is a pause in every five to five modes, while using
words like mehe, äge for emphasis. This tendency was a characteristic that comes from the
Mahanuwara era. For the sake of prosody, there were occasions that poets were inclined to
lengthen verses unnecessarily, therefore it was not possible to consider them as verses of high
quality. The following verse has no meaning, but only a tune. For the sake of alliteration, some
letters were added unnecessarily.
bōvena kumarua mė mė mė mė ki gäna basa raja me
ē gäna v airaya mė mė mė mė päna täna kīve
premayen api säma mė mė mė mė yāmena
bōdana ekatuva mė mė mė mė lāmena särasili me
"The king said some words to the growing prince, for which he developed a hatred. With love,
all of us got together and decorated this..."
Sometimes, poets disregarded metre and paid attention only to the vowels that came up in
the verses as it is shown here. A salient feature seen in this period was that more attention was
paid to long metres than to four line verse metres. According to the E ḷu Saňdäs Lakuṇa , there
were about twenty eight metres.
kauru enatek jayagatidäi kiya kiyā nāki mahallo
nämburu vī väni väni ävidin paseka un tosin kuhullo
so n duru pāäti saron kailoli soma da ända taruṇa kollo
ituru pättaka gosin indagati vāda daknā lesin vipullo
"Old men saying, "Who has won so far?" came bending and waving, and waited inquisitively.
Young men came wearing beautifully coloured sarongs, and important people sat there watching
the debate."
In this verse, there are about twenty five to twenty six modes (five letter words), and
according to the rules of prosody, they are classified as mī prosody.
In the verse given below,
which is classified as tenet prosody, the poet has made use of the colloquial language instead of
poetic language.
juvan mage duva bändalā unnā eka pav lē
naming napuru kittā pämiṇa kaḷa apaa aulē
eyin tamai mē anatura sidda une me kā lē
daran inne kelesada mama mē kāraṇa mekālē
"Juvan married my daughter, and we lived as one family until the wicked Kitta came and caused
confusion. That is how this misfortune happened. This situation is too unbearable for me".
Verses that belonged to the tenet prosody have at least twenty one or twenty two short
syllables in each line. Many verses written during this period had more than twenty syllables in
each line which should be specially mentioned here. On some occasions, the usage of a classical
language was an effort made to be compatible with the traditional metre.
siya pata uvana nilupul yuganaya na
mudu itā sevela varalasa koṇḍa dasa na
eka yutā tisara piyayuru mana nan na
gaňga veta giyemi varaňgana siri dara na
"Face like a lotus flower, eyes like blue lotuses, soft plaited hair fallen up to the hips. Teeth like
kumudu flowers. Breasts like swans. I went towards the lake to see these noble ladies."
This verse belongs to the gaja prosody and according to the Kavumi ṇ i Kaḷ amba , we can see
that it resembles more to the Sakvā virita (metre). In Sinhala verse literature, the Samudra ghōṣa
virita was very popular at that time with its ten or eight modes and pauses composed with
eighteen modes. Some of the verses of that period too were written in Samudra ghōṣa virita or
with another metre closer to that.
k adisarayā uva hapilā gira vara ṇ a
tama vatayā bindagana väni leutura ṇa
sända velayā nägipasu taru eli kara ṇa
visirigiyā vänimaya ohuge kira ṇa
"Even though smart, he was struck by an elephant. When the moon rises and stars brighten the
sky and scatter rays of light …"
One can sometimes note that songs were written using metres, and in these songs, metres a nd
pattern were lengthened.
bat pisa nokana sē
tora novamin daniva sē
tama himi santo sē
käv lan bat mäṇ i yan sē
"Cooking rice and without eating it, she stands near her husband to make him happy and mixes
rice for him like a mother".
In these verses, each line has 9, 11, 9, 14 patterns. The unequal lines (metre) in the gī virita
have nine modes and eleven pauses, while the preceding verses have twenty modes and the
subsequent ones, twenty two modes.
The obvious reason is that poets of that period had not
taken any special interest in metre. They wanted to express their ideas unfettered through poetry.
In the structure of Sinhala verse and in its process of development, the verse occupied only a
secondary place. The Sinhala verse that originated with song eventually became extremely
popular due to the verse of four lines (sivupada). The gī or silo which came into existence as a
result of the coordination of song and verse can be shown as a traditional form of verse. While
prosody contributed to the development of verse, the stanza can be termed as a recent
development. It is obvious that the Mahanuwara and Matara poets had shown a great liking for
this type of literature.
Of these works, the 20th century poem Gaňgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva and
Mihiripenne's (1806) verses were reckoned as high. Although Venerable Mihiripenne composed
short poems containing several stanzas, from time to time, he had not written an aśaka or any
other notable book of poems. Nevertheless, Venerable Dharmaratana can be considered as an
outstanding figure in composing poetical stanzas. Among the verses that came under our review,
we could find verses in the stanza metre composed by him. Sometimes, the stanza metre as well
as the four line metre were used frequently.
pānev melak mäduru des tama räs durin lu
G.H. Perera abidam mätindā samat u
minidam ruvan dā mi ṇi lō sudanan noyek desa
bandā nitin guṇaräsin pinavā ves dän
"The poet G.H. Perera uses his poetic talents to brighten poetry and change it. He composed
poetry binding it always in a tasteful manner to win readers' appreciation".
While the stanza mentioned above can be classified as belonging to the Mālin i virita, at
that time many stanzas were written following ancient verse traditions. In expressing or even
describing an incident that occurred at that time in stanzas, the use of new similes was
noticeable. Although the following stanza can be considered to have been composed according to
the Bujangaprayāta virita, it has not conveyed any new ideas.
ahas kus gamangat noyek bū suran käl
edan sal balālā sudam sal igillī
ävit bim telehi diledo kuhul net
säpat vī haḷo dev nives e kuhul sit
"Deities travelling in the air look at the dāna sālā vas with inquisitive eyes. They fly from
Sudarma and abandon their heavenly abodes."
It is clearly seen that these poets were not successful in presenting "tasteful" poetical imagery.
Yet, we can see that through the use of the ordinary man's dialect, they made an effort to express
their ideas freely. As is evident from examples of this period, classical poetry was continuing to
degenerate. Although many poets were enthusiastic about writing poetry, their poems were not
of a high standard, similar to the Sigiri graffiti poems written by ordinary visitors. These poets
were comparatively less talented, and hence their creations were inferior in quality. Although the
poets of that era (19th century) were somewhat conversant with texts like the Siyabaslakara, they
felt that they were not bound to faithfully follow the instructions given there. The poets who used
the words given in the Siyabaslakara did not show that they could grasp the special two-fold
meaning suggested in those.
penet at belen ena arutudu sadatu dekab
yam sanda savanatehi hota - hägnenu penetata nam ve
These words in the Siyabaslakara express the overt meaning as well as the covert meaning. It
appears that the poets at that time have paid more attention to the external appearance or the
form of a verse rather than its content. Around 1838, poetry which was composed such as
Heladiv Abhidhānavata , the attention of poets was directed to the eight gaṇ as, as well as to the
harmful results arising from poetical faults. Under the eight gaṇas , the poets' attention has been
directed to the differences between long and short vowels, appropriate and inappropriate gaṇas ,
auspicious and inauspicious results arising from use of inappropriate syllables, prosody,
grammar, agreeable and disagreeable sources etc. Also attention was drawn to poetic faults,
good and bad gaṇas, errors in prosody, appropriate similes, gender, faults, repetition etc. Books
like the Heladivu Abhidhānavata reveal that those books were written after researching into
ancient texts in order to create a new tradition in the art of writing verses. To support this fact, a
verse from Heladiv Abhidhānavata is quoted below.
kīvot melesa katunāhaa dos nopamā
ätäi poraṇa kavi me sidat saňgarāda mā
"If it is told in this way, the author would be blamed. If there are ancient verses, they are those
cited from the Sidat Saňgarā va".
Until the critics expressed new ideas, poets who held deep-rooted, established ideas did not
abandon their traditional ways, and followed the usual path of imitation. This was one reason
why the poets at that time did not reach "maturity". However, some poets admitted the
shortcomings in their verses, and begged pardon from readers. Nevertheless, due to a trivial
matter relating to prosody in the poem Gaňgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva , the s avsat dam vādaya was
precipitated, and it became a source for a series of controversies on prosody. However, no other
book that appeared during that period could generate such vibrant criticism. Nevertheless,
learned scholars at that time had some awareness about literary criticism. During that time,
critics of poetry were concerned only with the form of the verse. It was very rarely, a critic paid
much attention to the poetic value of a poem. As a result of literary criticisms that arose
centering on the savusat dam vādaya , a series of new views were expressed as shown in the
reviews that appeared in 1889 on books titled Muva Kavuḍu Sivul Katāva and Gaja Sivul
Katāva. Mu va Kavu ḍu Sivul Katāva was written by M. Francis Mary Soyza and the Gaja Sivul
Katāva by J.M.C. de Soyza. These two books were written on the invitation of Gurunnanse
Thambi Appu, and they were sent to scholars for review. A large number of commentators
pointed out the good and bad aspects of the books. Meanwhile, Engeltina Kumari wrote a book
named Kā vya Vajrāyudhaya, showing the incorrect instances in the poetical criticisms of the
above two books and mentioning some valuable views shown by critics. Some criticisms were
not rational and were not unbiased evaluations. They were sometimes utter nonsense or clichés
of indecent words. A critic who got involved in the controversy under the pseudonym of ām a:
discloses this appropriately.
vādayaka päminu na
jaya gäna parusa vadanina
eyin sihi nuvaṇina
yodā piḷituru kivot anaguṇa
guttila maha osuda
mē neka panḍ ivaru sonda
kaḷ a siyaluma vä ḍa
parusa binumen nokaruveda
"They come to a debate and use harsh words. You should reply with discreetness and care.
Guttila Pandit never used harsh words in his debates".
Nevertheless, at the end of the 19 th century, this situation underwent a change. The use of
harsh words in criticism completely disappeared. Likewise, there was a tendency to treat literary
works on merit. During this period, criticism on poetry received encouragement from
newspapers. While poets sent their books to editors of newspapers and magazines for review, the
critics who reviewed pointed out virtues as well as defects in these books. On the whole, such
criticisms paid no attention to the rules of poetics in the Siyabaslakara or Kāvyādarśaya , but
they only commented on the general nature of the poems and the benefits one could derive from
them. The two examples given below would elucidate this point further. A newspaper named
Satya Samuccaya criticized the Siyabas Mal Dama that appeared at that time, as follows:
"Yet those who learn Sinhalese, the great King Vijaya of the Sinhala Island, to those who
like to know news of him and his love affairs."
At that time, the common man began to show some interest in poetry as evinced from some
criticisms that appeared in the newspapers. The poems of Sigiri graffiti were written by ordinary
persons. And Robert Knox in the 18th century mentioned that all the people of Sri Lanka are
poets and that some criticism on poetry confirms that fact. Regarding the folk poems of the 19th
century, a newspaper editor expressed a similar idea:
"Books that are not 'pala batu' verses, and a lot of sivupada exist in the oral tradition of
Sinhala people. As one can see, some use ornate methods, endowed with grammatical
tricks which have been introduced by learned people. Some natural, intuitive persons
compose poems which are full of satire that spread no sooner one heard them."
In composing poetry, the common people at that time used Sinhala language in an unrestrained
and free manner. During the Peradeniya era of the 1960s, there was a literary debate which
according to some critics, was only a sequel to the debate that began at the end of the 19th
century.The Lak Rivi Kiraṇa commented in 1896:
The poetry in our country from ancient times praised our women with various glorifying
terms. Because of this, young men became inflamed with lust and their minds became
corrupted, so nothing conducive to their progress happened. Therefore, poets made up
their minds to abandon this custom, and when praising women, gave good admonitions
for their progress in this world.
By this type of criticism, it is evident that literature, especially poetry was influenced by
religious and other ethics related concepts. It was seen that even critics prompted poets to present
erotic concepts in their poetry in a refined manner. The Lak Rivi Kiraṇa again commented: "It
would be best if poetry that tends to increase carnal desires is not included in these books and
given publicity."
Sometimes, these poems gained popularity in the society, particularly in the south of Sri
Lanka and these criticisms can be considered as an indirect accusation against many poets who
composed such erotic poems.
yauvana madayaa pamaṇak obi nā
kav pada bändumak karatei me vinā
"Suitable only for young people's passion. These verses are composed for them " .
Sometimes, there would have been a growing resentment among common people for books
of poems dealing with erotic themes. It may be mentioned that the influence of criticism on
Sinhala poetry during this period was negligible. It is a well known fact that James de Alwis in
his book A Survey of Sinhala Literature (being an introduction to a translation of the Sidat
Saňgarāva) displays the vast knowledge he had on both the literature of Sinhala language and
the English language. In a society where such well read scholars lived, it was natural for the
common man to imbibe even a very little of that knowledge. James de Alwis in the beginning of
his book remarks thus: "Led by curiosity, or invited by the allurements of Science, Europeans
have, during the past half-century, devoted not a little of their time to the task of unlocking the
rich stores of Oriental Literature."
It was seen that prominent Sinhala scholars who were well-educated in English and
Sinhala, evaluated Sinhala books following the methods adopted in English criticism. When all
these facts are considered, it can be said that although there was an inclination to draw
inspiration from verse traditions in the past, the foundation for the present-day poetic traditions
has been actually laid by the end of the 19th century.
' Gentlemen Poetry' in the Colonial Context
'Gentlemen poetry' is a word that sounds strange today. Nevertheless, from the research done on
Bengal society, the enthusiasm and attitudes shown by males towards poetry is easy to recognize.
Rosinka Chaudhuri's book Gentlemen Poets in Colonial Bengal (2002), describes Indian poets
as English poetry influenced their poetry in the 19th century. It details how poetic creations of
male poets were influenced by English verse.
With the expansion of the printing industry (in
then Ceylon during the colonial era), efforts to express in verse gathered momentum among men.
One reason for this was that the population had become more literate. Educated in government
Sinhala medium schools and in the privenas, this group did not have much knowledge of English
language and literature. The style of language they used in their poetic compositions was closer
to the Sinhala folk idiom. They were not recognized writers and the themes of their creations
were not about those who were subjugated to colonialism, and their books were confined to
illustrate facets of folk traditions of the local population. Apart from those poetical compositions,
the poetical creations of those who received a bilingual education can also be observed. An
outstanding characteristic in the creativity of these poets is the use of the classical diction, which
was close to tradition. In colonial literature, male writers outnumbered female ones. Under this
condition, a set of new readers emerged. The contributions of bhikkhus in the sphere of literature
gradually declined, and it paved the way for laymen to express ideas on topics that were
considered as improper for women to discuss. Because of this, these verses found wide
distribution among readers. Among the subjects of this genre, many were on sentimental or
emotional love. Another topic that drew the attention of poets was social events and praise of
religious festivals. After the well-known poetess Gajaman Nona (1746- 1815), Dona Selestina
(1897) can be indentified as a poetess who had some knowledge in formal poetics. Books like
Kara Palal Hätte, Alimāle ādara Ratnaya, Ka ḷu Siniňdu Katāva and Kāvya Vajrāyudhaya helped
display her talents and made her become well-known. Aṅganaguṇadapana
of N. Catherine
Silva was a book that was widely spoken of in the colonial context and can be treated as
influenced by colonialism. Her poem shows that she was fearless in expressing her ideas. As
Arjuna Parakrama states, … it was in many ways, a self-consciously 'feminist' text. It explicitly
rejected dominant notions of female sexuality, and lays bare male hypocrisy, criticizing the
privileged male hypocrisy …
These poetesses were unique because they possessed a fairly
good knowledge and a grasp in prosody. While most male composers of poetry had no
knowledge of prosody, the advantage they had was the liberty to express their ideas freely.
These writers who had not come under the sway of colonialism, were seen as a group and they
represented Ceylonese folk traditions. Among these were:
Appuhamy Ernest Jayasuriya (1896), Appuhamy Carolis (1895), Appuhamy Manthes (1896),
Jamis Appuhamy, Edirisinghe (1896), Gandara Don Andiris Coranelis Senanayake, Mathale
Nakaththa (1894), Pabilis Don Felix Apa Appuham, Nandana Kavishekara (1895), Wijeweera
(1899) etc. It should be noted that although European, especially Portuguese, derived names
abound above, it should not be assumed that these persons were pro-colonial because during
colonial times, European names were forced on locals. It was only such writers as above who
were able to express something tasteful in their poetry. Many people who read this poetry
enjoyed it and it is a well-known fact that these writers were instrumental in creating a new
reading public. As their creations were so simple, it was not possible to categorize them under
folk verse. The reason for this is that though they expressed ideas in a fearless manner, the
creative aspect was lacking in them. This applies equally to folk songs too. Nevertheless, under
the "modern" social order, these poets used a wealth of material taken from rural as well as urban
society. Since the language they used was closer to the folk language, it appeared as if they were
following the literary traditions of the past. One can trace in it the roots of the poetry of modern
time. The writers who were bilingual, made significant contributions in this period. Among them
were Albert de Silva (1890) (Kavumi ṇ i Kalamba, Pandu Keḷiya, Himat īrtālaṅkā raya, Vesak
Kavu Mal Dama, Volunteer Kandavura, Sūkara Jātaka Kāvya ), T. Bastian de Silva Avurudu
(1891) Mālaya , Go Ghātanaya) and James de Alwis ( Mātara a Gamanak ).
The poetry of
these writers was quite different from that of the poets mentioned earlier, in respect to the usage
of rules and the language of traditional verse. Their attitude towards society as depicted in their
poems was different. Thus, on the whole, one can distinguish several factors that were special to
these poets. The booklets of verses that were published after 1850 contained verses that
resembled the characteristics of verses of the Matara period. The changes that had taken place
throughout the island in the 19 th century in the spheres of economic, social, cultural and political
were reflected in this poetry. On the whole, one can find in these poems, a medley of
characteristics found in the traditional poems and folk poetry.
It was the new reading public, who emerged with the expansion of printing that
showed a penchant for these verses. When one examines the history of the poetic tradition from
its inception, one would be able to discern that a vast change had taken place in respect of theme,
objective etc. On some occasions, an effort was made to revive the ancient traditions. Language,
production of books, composing of poetry, rules and regulations followed by ancient scholars,
changed from time to time paving the way for new ones. The wide distribution of knowledge,
orthography and the abundance of books, are some reasons that can be attributed to these
changes.
In their poetry, writers added personal experiences and liked to use well-known
sayings and similes and the common parlance of the times.
Consequently, modern literature
became closer to the people and more realistic, thus reflecting the complexities of contemporary
life than the literature of the remote past.
During the middle of the 19th century Sinhala literature followed a completely new
direction.
So far, the only influences were from traditional Sinhala and Tamil literature, but
with influences coming from Western literature, the door was open to new ways of thinking.
With the expansion of English education, some poets sought new ways to present their
compositions. With this background, some poets did not show any liking to traditional verse,
which had come down the ages. The influence of English poetry on Sinhala poetry was evident
among those who were not separated from traditional indigenous culture and closer to the
borders of urban culture. The English schools that were established by the Buddhist associations
resulted in the proliferation of English educated young men who learnt English literature as a
subject in school. Having drawn inspiration from English literature, they started composing
Sinhala verses imitating the English verses they had learned. Nevertheless, the traditional
scholars who had received an oriental education did not show any appreciation for the new
poetical trends of these young men. This was the background of the conflict that cropped up
between English poetry and Sinhala poetry.
The traditional verse and their meanings, the
ancient Jātaka stories with the settings of Dambadiva (India) depicted in those, and admonitions
given in those Jātaka stories were a far cry from the English poetry that these English educated
young men knew. These young English educated men chose for their poetry day to day
experiences, which they gathered from their own environment.
Before the introduction of the
English poetic traditions, it was the poetic traditions of the Mahanuwara and Matara period that
had held sway. The British Colonial rulers whose objective was to train locals to fill the
administrative posts, paid more attention to English education and thus Sinhala literature became
neglected.
The two most outstanding poets of the Romantic Age in English literature were
P.B. Shelley (1792-1822) and John Keats (1795-1821) both dying young, Nevertheless, they
influenced English literature of the period immensely, and had also a considerable impact on the
Sinhala poetical literature.
Yet, the extent of influence of English poetry on Sinhala poetical
literature in the 19th century was not well-known. Thus, although there was a wide expansion of
English education towards the end of the 19 th century, it was the Indian poetical concepts that
predominantly exerted some influence on Sinhala verse traditions.
The Siyabaslakara, a
treatise on metrics informed Sinhala poets about the science of poetry. The virtues of a poem,
characteristics of great poems, meaningful embellishments, alliteration and poetical errors
identified by name had not been sufficient for poetics and poetical criticism. To fill this gap,
examples were provided in the Siyabaslakara. Some poetical concepts in the Siyabaslakara have
been in use for a long time by Sinhala poets.
For those poets who had a great desire to use
alliteration in the 13th century, the Elu Saňdäs Lakuṇa , a treatise on prosody by a monk called
Badra, became very useful. Local poets were concerned about poems that brought both
beneficial and harmful results. At present, threre are books that deal with beneficial and harmful
results in poetical compositions. There are the Sidat Saňgarāva (Itu Nitu Adiyara) Lakuṇ usara
and Kavulakuṇu Mi ṇimal. In this way, the necessary instructions are given on how to compose a
poem without blemishes. From Savusa t Dam Vādaya as well as Muvakavu ḍu Sival Katāva and
Gaja Sival Katāva, one can see how the local poetic criticism influenced those works. Despite
tradition, change takes place in modern society; so does the people's taste
Narrative Poetry, Kavi Kola and Popular Literature
According to Ediriweera Sarachchandra, the foundation of the modern Sinhala language was
built on debates, leaflets, periodicals etc. which contributed to enriching it. Similarly, the
reader's knack for reading was enhanced by translations, tales in versified form, plays etc.
Sarachchandra's views on poetry of the 19th century are worth enquiring into. With the wide
expansion of printing technology, the quantity of written material that appeared in verse form
was large. Sometimes books of verses came out in print in considerable numbers because
newspapers had created a growing demand for such books among the general public. Most of
these stories revolved round incidents based on the lives of lay households.
There were many
reasons for the popularity of verse among the people. Narrative poetry tells a story.
For
versified tales, certain incidents, characters and contemporary social events provide a wealth of
interesting themes. These versified narratives are built on a cleverly constructed plot.
Contemporary experiences in the background also add colour to it. Sometimes, poets' personal
experiences are incorporated in the plot to make it more interesting for the reader. Such incidents
are organized in a deft manner to create a deep impression in the reader. The characters in the
verses too change from time to time.
The tales in these narrative poems can be treated as
fanciful fiction. These human experiences presented in a mixture of spoken and written language
and in versified form are meant for the gratification of the reader. On the whole, in the traditional
fiction, narratives can be found in folktales, fairy tales, parables, fables, moral tales, myths,
legends, and also in modern fiction which include both fantastic and realistic fiction. There are at
least four stages in narratives, namely orientation, complication, series of events, resolutions, and
reorientation. To introduce special characters, adjectives are used. Reasons such as where, how
and why are explained, and the story is presented in such a manner that a vivid picture is formed
in the reader's mind through the language.
While these beautiful verses did not receive the
patronage of important and powerful people as in the past, the readers' interest to read Jātaka
and other stories increased. This situation paved the way for the birth of versified narratives in
Sinhalese. A large number of Jātaka stories were versified while every other verse narrative
contained some sort of story as its nucleus. Nimi Jātaka Kāvya,
Temiya Jātakaye Viridu
Pota,
Ummagga Jātaka Kāvya
, Velaňda Rāja Maňgalyaya,
Kummāsa Pinḍ a Jātaka
Kāvya,
Tun Yahalu Puvata,
Kusa Rāja Maňgalyaya,
Deva Dharma Jātakaya,
Kāpiri
Kumārayage Katāva, Tarka Jātaka Kāvya, Sūkara Jātaka Kāvya etc, can be cited as examples.
However, poems written on certain incidents and special events that took place at that time were
more readily accepted by the readers than those based on Jātaka stories. Alut Kaḍe Usāviya
Langadi Sidu Vuna Maraṇayak hevat Juliyānu Katāva Nohot Avavāda Maldama.
("A murder
that took place near Hultsdorf Courts or Juliyanu Story alias Avavāda Maldama") is one such
example.This incident was presented in verse form as a story about a murder that took place near
the Hultsdorf Courts. This poem based on a real incident, offers the reader something for his
gratification. The story is about a young woman from a remote village who had come to work as
a house-maid in Colombo who had later given birth to a daughter. She was named Juliyanu and
was given in marriage to one Juvan Perera. When Juliyanu had flirted with another man, Perera
had filed a case against her. But being overwhelmed by severe pain of mind, he had later stabbed
and killed Juliyanu. How Juliyanu's mother lamented over her daughter's death i s depicted in
verse.
juvan mage duva bäňdalā unnā eka paulē
naming napuru kittā pämina kalā pata aulē
eyein tamai me anatura sidda une me kalē
daran inne kelesada mama me kāraṇā me kālē
"Juvan married my daughter and lived as a family. A wicked man named Kitta came and caused
this problem. That is why this happened. How can I bear this up?"
While the pseudonym 'Kitta' is used to introduce the main characte r of this story, the poet
has been successful in creating a visual picture of him in the reader's mind. By expressing
certain ideas in the story, the poet is able to arouse an emotional feeling of grief in the reader and
this is a special feature of the poem. Sipiri Mālaya or 'The Prisoner's Lamentation' is presented
in verse form to portray a prisoner's suffering.
hapalā kannaa bäri bat ika gal ekka
uyalā labuhodda diya kaḷa kaha ekka
analā gammiris luṇu ku ḍukara ekka
kālā ina bäri danavā mage bokka
"When I eat rice I chew stones too. The gravy has only saffron and salt. After mixing and eating
pepper and salt, my stomach burns up".
Language used in these verses is not creative, but what attracts the reader is the story.
These verses have been created with the intention of gratifying the reader's desire for reading.
Ka ugampola Ha ana describes in verse the dreadful riot that had taken place in the
Katugampola Pallegama village.
Pallegama Banda and Gunaratna both had a dispute over
some land, and both parties clashed with weapons such as clubs, pistols, dynamite etc. The first
stanza begins with a description of the ghastly scene which strikes the reader's mind with
horror.
rakusan lesin mun säma tul velā sita
ka ḍamin pol kurumbā gas pālu koa
kukulan sävoma allā sivalun lesaa
keruven noyek kō l āhala biyakaru lesaa
"Like devils, they plucked the coconuts and young coconuts, and laid bare the coconut trees.
They destroyed the chickens and many other animals and created a big riot".
The reasons for giving publicity to these types of incidents in print were mainly due to
their sensational nature. Such incidents had become the topics of conversation by everybody in
society. A story can be seen in the book Marakkala Ha ana or Sinhala Marakkala K ō l āhalaya.
A young man from karave caste at Moratuwa had carried on an illicit love-affair with a young
Muslim woman from New Road, Colombo. One day, this young man had secretly taken the
Muslim woman to Moratuwa. Both parties became enraged and a great commotion ensued.
colomba sian marakkallu karatta pia nägilā
deraṇa gaman gatta lesaa mora ugama a gos pirilā
rägena ävit ape liyak megamehi äta sangavalā
uraṇa velā asati sävoma täna täna sia sängilā
"A large number of Muslims from Colombo had gone in carts to Moratuwa and asked the people
why they were hiding one of their Muslim women in the village".
A riot had broken out between the two parties. In the end, they went to the Maradana
police station to settle the dispute. The Muslims, the Sinhalese and the new couple gathered in
the courts where the case was heard.
na ḍu asanā tunpala narana hamuvaa rägena unsituv aminā
yon visinā päminilla geṇā kiv mema taruṇa vañcā lesinā
mav visinā räka un nitinā aḍuvayas vanā ladariya rägenā
giya bävinā āgama näsunā apa kula vināsaya una bävinā
"The Muslims said: This man took away our young underaged girl who was loved and cared for
by her mother and owing to this incident, our religion has been defiled".
To ridicule certain persons, tales in versified form were used. A special feature was to use
verse in the form of dialogue. Based on the character of a well known lawyer from Matara,
Perakadō ru Haana
had been composed. The story here was about a father who had filed a
case against the sons of his first and second wives regarding the ownership of some land. To get
back his land and settle the dispute, he had filed a case. To consult the lawyer, the villager had
visited him taking a pingo load of goods. The whole story is presented in verse in the form of a
dialogue. The lawyer had quickly uttered these words:
perakadōru duu ekalē
hanika melesa kiyai lolē
gamaa gosin numba rālē
gena ēvā makiyana siyalē
desit doḍan jamanāran raseyā
välat samaga varakā gena tosēyā
alut väli hakuru mul bäňda me sēyā
genät deva kanḍa nōnaa sēyā
"Go to the village and bring oranges, mandarins, ripe jak, and a bundle of jaggery and give those
to my lady".
For three years, the case had dragged on and in the end, the villager was sentenced to
prison. His suffering in the prison is expressed here in a very sensitive manner.
siragei ohu inna kalaa
māsa tunak yana ataraa
atisāra leḍak ohua
velā märuṇi asaddaya a
"He was in jail for three months and while he was there he had contacted diarrhea and died".
The uniqueness of these tales was that the writer's sole intention was to narrate a story,
paying no heed to the creative style he used. The various embellishments seen in traditional verse
are not found in these versified stories.The Sinhalese classical poets used a wide range of
subjects, like Jātaka stories, and followed the rules of prosody using similes and anecdotes with
the object of creating an accomplished piece of poetry. The best example that could be cited is
Kavsilumiṇa. Yet, the 19th century verse writers did not find it necessary to use appropriate
language to accomplish their work. Their objective was to present a story in a free style. It was
not a problem for them whether there were characters or not. Colomba nagaraya tuḷa diḷindange
vilāpaya
(The lamentations of the poor in Colombo city) is a poem that describes the travails
of the poor in Colombo city who had been evicted from their houses by the police.
yama paluvo lesin innā 'police' kārayō vit
däḍi vadanā kiyā sithi madakvat novī duk
' ka ḍa kaḍava tope pälpate geval däna' kiyālā
su ṇu visuṇu karat duppat ape päl mekalhī
"Like devils from hell, the police came and destroyed our houses saying: we are going to pull
down your slums".
Another interesting feature of this period is the presentation of old folk tales in a novel
form. A king in the olden days was suffering from some ailment and a dhoby came forward to
cure him. This story is told as an incident that happened in the present.
In most of these
versified tales, some plot is used to arouse the curiosity of the reader. In the 19th century, printing
technology expanded in Indian society and versified tales were growing in popularity among the
urban population there too. Even a well-known folk tale, presented in a novel form would
become popular.
In the context of the closely-knit Sri Lankan society, well known versified
tales gained popularity among the urban as well as the village population. Those writers without
proper education or literary taste, tried to show these tales as chap-books.
These types of
versified tales were printed and sold at public places in the form of Kavi Kola (sheets of verses).
Both Gananath Obeysekera and Neera Wickremasinghe showed that this type of verse could be
rated as Kavi Kola literature printed in the 19 th century. This may be called an oral literary
culture consisting of the popular ballads based on Jātaka tales. They came to be printed in cheap
leaflets called Kavi Kola that were sold at market places and pilgrimage centres. Those sheets of
verses became popular among these classes that had acquired literacy in the state school
system.
It is quite reasonable that this type of verse-sheets be classified under Kavi Kola
literature as suggested by several researchers. With the spread of printing technology in the 19th
century, most forms of poetry became popular among the people. Verse became a popular form
of literature among the masses. Popular literature was not a new form in Sri Lanka. In Indian
society of the 19th century folk tales, plays, and new stories are regarded as popular literature.
C.E. Godakumbura made an effort to depict the poetry of the Mahanuwara period and the 19th
century as popular literature. There is evidence to show that popular stories were presented in
versified form and distributed among the people, even as far back as the 17th century.
The
article published in the late 19th century titled ' The Popular Poetry of the Sinhalese'
bears
testimony to this fact. In popular poetry, one can find the lives and views of the Sinhalese
expressed in simple literary language. These books may be categorized into contemporaneous or
posthumous publications.
The popular poetry of the Sinhalese can be classified into the following categories:
1. Poems written on religious themes;
2. Poems based on Jātaka tales;
3. Poems based on falk tales;
4. Poems based on historical events or incidents;
5. Poems on arts and crafts; and
6. Poems on games and pastimes.
Although poems in this classification can be identified, all of them could not be subjected to
review, as it is too vast in number.
With the expansion all over the world of printing
technology and printing culture, people's levels of education were also enhanced gradually
concurrent with the exchange of knowledge and information. With the expansion of literacy,
'cheap' literature too became widespread. This type of literature was most popular with the
lower strata of society.
The notable feature that one could find was that the 19th century
writers' aim to present popular and interesting stories which were composed according to
"proper methods". Som e of these stories transcended the level of traditional folklore and verses
and took the form of creative and investigative poetry. Likewise, the merits and demerits of a
poem were subjected to scrutiny and made public. In this, all popular verses were branded as
traditional Kavi kola poetry in the 19th century. However, to reach such a general conclusion was
not reasonable, as all traditional poetry had not been subjected to proper investigation. Modern
traditional poetry appears to be more popular. Ariya Rajakaruna mentions that with the
expansion of printing technology in the end of the 19th century, it paved the way for a new
traditional poetry which became very popular.
To classify this poetry in its entirety is,
somewhat difficult as the literature is very vast. On the whole, the aims of the poet were
apparently to compose verse slightly deviating from the hitherto traditions of poetry, but
adhering to its basics. These characteristics that were already evident in the Mahanuwara and
Matara literary periods began to gradually slacken. It is not possible to show the poetry of the
post-Mahanuwara era in a meaningful way, and the Colombo literary era came into the scene
amidst this situation. With the expansion of the printing industry during the colonial era, the
literary style hitherto prevalent in society, and the way of thinking underwent certain changes,
the effects of which were felt on the traditional verse as well.This being the case, it completely
accedes to Sarachchandra's view that these poetical traditions do not occupy a definite place in
the history of Sinhala literature. Sarachchandra mentions that from the middle half of the 19th
century, Western literature held sway over the middle class in Sri Lanka.
Although the people
of the middle class knew about English poetry, there was no strong influence of it on Sinhalese
traditional poetry. Thus, it proves that many critics had arrived at this conclusion without
providing convincing reasons. These verse traditions were founded on the literary style current in
colonial times. With the invasion of politics into the colonial society, the socio-cultural life and
the people's way of thinking gradually changed, and they began to think in new ways.
Traditions were challenged. The improvements in technology, new ways of communication and
road systems - all those factors contributed to change the ideals of the people.
With the
expansion in printing technology and communication, articles, verses, and novels were published
awakening the feelings of national dignity all over the world. This was the opinion of Sharkey J.
Heather. Although a wide expansion of printing technology could be seen in the Sri Lankan
society, there was no poetry to kindle nationalism. The way people used printing techniques for
the purpose of awakening patriotic feeling is shown in these poems. Although this idea was not
clearly seen in the Buddhist revival movement in the 19th century, which revolved around the
temperance movement, poetry helped to build the necessary background for the rise of
nationalism. Likewise, the necessary background was prepared for the independence movement
which gathered momentum at a later stage.
Conclusion
The common characteristic that could be seen in this period under discussion was that scholarly
and folk traditions were both represented in the new poetical traditions. Poetry was the common
medium of communication in society, and it was certainly a characteristic of the traditional verse
that emerged parallel with the printing industry. When society changed, poetry also changed with
it. It is reasonable to treat this period as a period of transition in the history of poetical literary
traditions.
Endnotes
1. Sannasgala, Punchibandara, Sinhala sāhitiya vansaya ( The History of Sinhalese Literature) Colombo: Lake
HousePrinters, 1961 : p 508 Since the beginning of the Anuradhapura era, naming the division of eras in the
history of Sinhala literature was done based on the kingdom, such as Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Dambadeniya,
Kurunegala, Gampola, Kotte, Seethawaka, Mahanuwara and Colombo
Kulasuriya, Ananda, sinhala sāhitiya 1 3rd Printing, Visidunu Publications, Boralasgamuwa, 1999.
Suraweera, A.V., Sinhala sāhithiya sampradāya (Traditions of Sinhala Literature) Rajagiriya: Kurulu Poth,
1998; Godakumbura, C.E., Sinhalese Literature, The Colombo Apothecaries, Colombo, 1955.
These books contain the history of Sinhala prose and verse and descriptions of the different literary eras.
Chandrasiri, Palliyaguru, Visiwana siyawase padya sahithya (Sinhalese Verse of the 20 th Century: The
Landmarks of a Century - The Characterisitics of Language and Literature in Sri Lanka) Ed. K.
Jayatilake et al, Godage & Brothers, 2008
This article contains views on literature expressed by literary writers like Punchibandara Sannasgala,
Tissa Kariyawasam, P.Malalgoda, Meemana Prematilake, Sagara Palansuriya, Martin Wickremasinghe,
Angulugaha Dhamminda, K.D.P. Wickremasinghe, Ananda Rajakaruna etc.
Ibid., 327
Anderson Benedict, Imagined Communities, London: Meard Street, 2006, 38
Read more 'The Origins of National Consciousness'
Kariyawasam, Tissa, Religious Activities and the Development of a New Poetical Tradition in Sinhalese 1852-
1906. Godage Puplication, Mardana, 1973
6. Orsini Francesca, Print and Pleasure , Paul's Press, New Delhi , 2009, p. 18
7. Wickramasinha, Dokan Martino de Zilva, Catalogue of Sinhalese Printed Books in the British
Museum, London: Printed by Gilbert and Rivinhton Limited, St. John's House, Clerkenwell
E.C., 1901; Samaraweera ,Vijaya, World Bibliographical Series – Volume - 20, Sri Lanka Clio Press,
55 St.Thomas' Street, Oxford, England, 1987; OIH – 954, 93 – British Library Cataloguing in
Publication Data; Ware. W. Bibliogaphy on Ceylon , University of Miami Press, 1962, OIH – 954. 93;
Goonatilaka H.A.I., A Bibliography of Ceylon , volumes 1-5; ORM 21 – Sinhalese – British Library
Oriental Collections, Sinhalese Printed Books, 1902 – 1977 microscopic tapes
8. Orsini Fransesca, op.cit ., 9
Ibid., 20, 21
Sarachchandra, Ediriweera, Sinhala navakatā ithihāsaya hā vicāraya (The History and Criticism of the
Sinhalese Novel) 7th Printing, Sarasavi Bookshop, Nugegoda,1997. 8
Ibid . 8.9
12. Ekanayake, Punchibanda , chirantana sinhala sāhitiya vicāra cintanaye vikāshanaya, Samayawardana
Publications, Maradana,1999, 135
Kavu Lakmini Minimal, Ed. Edmund Gunananda, 1953
Siyabas Maldama, (Ed) W.A. de Silva, A.D. 2452, 4 verses
Kapiri Kumarayage Katawa, ( The Story of the Kaffir Prince) 1877, 160 verse
Vachissara Himi, Kotagama, sañgarāja sādu samaya. Boralesgamuwa: Visidunu
Publications, 2003, 82
Kariyawasam, Tissa, Gammadu Puranaya (Ancient Gammadu), Maradana: Godgae Publications, 1990, 13–14
Ibid., 82
Welanda Raja Mangalya , 1893: 130 verse.
Kulasooriya, Ananda. sinhala sāhitiya 1, ( 3rd Printing) Boralesgamuwa:Visidunu Publications, 1999, 274
Muwadevdavata Sannaya , (Ed.) Kongastenne Ananda Himi, Dehiwala. Sri Devi Printers Company 1997, 4
verse.
Sasadavata , ( Ed. ), V.C.S . Gunawardana: Colombo, 2000. 4 verse.
Jataka Kavya, 22 verse.
Gnamanthri Katawa , 1867 , 2 verse.
Jataka Kavya,, 8 verse.
Kavyasekaraya, (Ed) Ratmalane Dharmarama Himi, 1966, 25 verse.
Fernado, J.D . Ummagga Jathakaya, 1894, 6 verse
Nakaththa, Matale, Kusa Rāja Mangalya , 1894, 7 verse.
Devadharma Jatakaya , 1873, 7 verse.
Ibid., 5 verse.
Devadharma Jatakaya , 1873, 7 verse.
Ekanayake, op.cit., 134
Adikaram, E.W. The Buddhist History of Lanka, 2 Chapter 2
Suraweera, A.V. purātana sāhithyāvaliye avasānaya hā nūtana yugaye ārambaya ," sumangala sañgrawa .
(Ed), Kadihingala Soratha Himi Colombo: Vidyodaya Viswa Vidyalaya Sri Sumangala Gunanusmarana
Sangarawa, 1962, 79.
Saratchandra, Op.cit ., 6.
Ibid ., 8.
Satara Maha Vādaya, (Ed( Kalinga Obeywansa, 1990 , xiii.
Dharmadasa, K.N.O. " yatat vijitha yugaye äthivu hela bodu punarudaya" ape sanskrutika urumaya, Ministry of
Cultural and Religious Affairs. Nugegoda: Deepani Publications, 1995, 24
Sarachchandra, Op.cit., 09.
Wickremasinghe , Sumangala Sangarava , 1962: 33.
Karunatilake, H.N.S., "The Local and the Foreign Impact of the Pānadurā Vādaya", Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Sri Lanka, New Series, Vol. XLIX, 2004, p. 75.
Paranavitana, Rohini., "Buddhasāsana Punarutthāpana Vyāpārayaṭa samagāmīva æti vū bhā ṣ ā śāstrīya
prabodaya ", Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka New Series, Vol. XLVIII, Special Number, 2003, p
189.
Dharmadasa. K.N.O.W, Op.cit., 246.
Sannasgala, Op.cit., 740
Kariyawasam, Tissa, 'Mohottiwatte Gunananda himipāno pasubima ha kārya sādhanaya " Mohottiwatte Sri
Gunananda samaru kalāpaya. (Ed), Tissa Kariyawasam & Praneeth Abayasundera, Maharagama: 1990. 181.
Sannasgala, Op.cit., 741.
Dharmadasa . K.N.O. W., Op.cit., 246.
Sugataratana, Kahapola., "Philosophical Aspects of the Pānadurā Vādaya", Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Sri
Lanka New Series, Vol. XLVIII, Special Number, 2003, p 56.
Sannasgala, Op.cit., 737.
Vanarathana Himi, Vanarathana Himi, Kamburupitiye. Matara mānava vansaya hā purāvidyatmaka itihsaya.
Gangodawila: Piyasiri Printing System, 1994. 237.
Ganga Rohana Varnnava. (Ed) . Sri Tilakasiri, Maradana: Rathna Publishers, 1998, 2 verse.
Ibid., 103 verse.
Gangarohana Varnanava, Op.cit.,2 verse.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid., xxii.
Wijesuriya, Wimala. "sausat dam wādaya" , vesesa sāhithiya kalāpaya , Battaramulla Ministry of Cultural Affairs.
1986. 2.
Ekanayake , Op.cit., 140.
Introduction to Sidat Sangarava , (Ed) James de Alwis, 1852: ccxxix.
Hewawasam, P. B.G., matara yugaye sāhitiyadarayan ha sāhitiya nibandana , Colombo: Department of Cultural
Affairs, 1966, 316.
Sannasgala, Op.cit., 647.
Kariyawasam, Religious Activities and the Development of a New Poetical Tradition In Sinhalese 1852-1906'
(Ph.D. Dissertation,) University of London, 1973. 351.
Wickremasinghe, K.D.P. Nuthana Sinhala Sahithya (Modern Sinhala Literature), Colombo: M.D. Gunasena &
Com, 1966. 146.
Gagarohana Varnnava, 67 verse.
Wimala Wijesuriya, Op.cit., 109.
Sannasgala, Op.cit., 58.
Hewawasam, P.B.G., "The Sav Sat Dam Controvery" UCR, January – April 1958, vol, xvii. 1&2, 1959. 134.
Athlipi (Handwritten ) National Archives Dept. 5, 63, 1.
Jayathilaka K, "deshiya sāhitiya vicāra kramayak tibiya yutuda?" (Should there be an Indigenous Literary
Criticism Method?) Special Literary Issue, Battaramulla, Cultural Department. 1987, 131.
Rajakaruna, Ariya, sampradāya hā sihina Lokaya( Traditions and the Dream World) Colombo: Rathna Book
Publishers, 1968 : 11.
Lankamulla, Kusumalatha, nūtana sinhala sāhitiye purogamiya- James de Alwis . Pioneer of Modern Sinhala
Literature, James de Alwis, Pannipitiya: Varsha Publications, 2002 ,74.
Rajakaruna, Op.cit., 265 .
Suraweera, A.V. Sinh ala sāhithiya sampradāya . Rajagiriya: Kurulu Poth, 1998, 182.
Sarachchandra Ediriweera, Op.cit ., 10 - 11.
Sastralankaraya, 1854, 6th paper, 46, 47.
Ibid, 1854 March 7th, 50.
Ibid, 1854 March 7th, 50.
Kariyawasam Tissa, R.D.P.S., 1973 : 365.
Wijesuriya Wimala, Op.cit ., 6.
Sannasgala , Op.cit., 737.
Godakumbura. C, E, Sinhalese Literature, Colombo : The Colombo Apothecaries1955 : 347.
Wickremasinghe Martin, Martin Wickramasinha Kruthi ekathuwa (A Collection of Martin Wickremasinghe's
Books) 1992:329.
Kariyawasam, R.D.P.S., 363.
See Nuthana Sinhala Padya Sahithiyehi Pasubima , Ven. Olaganwatte Chandasiri, 2009.
Gangarohana Varnnava, 69.
Vanaratana himi, Op.cit., 03.
Hewawasam, The Sav sat dam Controversy, UCR , Vol. xvii, no. 1 & 2, 1959: 134.
Punnyakarmalankaray, 1890: 106 verse.
Wijesuriya, Op.cit ., 4 – 7.
Subhasitaya, (Ed), Munidasa Kumaratunga, 1989, 6 verse.
Budugunalankaraya, Education Publications Dept. , 1978, 9 verse.
Abhinavarama Varnanava, 1893 : 114 verse.
Punyakarmalankaraya, 1890 : 106 verse.
Nandana, Kummasa Pinda Jatakaya, 1895 : 28 verse.
W. J. Passasum Hara, 1892: 9 verse.
Velada Rajya Mangalya, 1893: 18 verse.
De Silva Albert, Bentara Lakara, 1890 : 3 verse.
Appuhamy V. Carolis, Kupadi Hatana , 1893 : 46 verse.
Siyabaslakara Varnnava , (Ed) Henpitagedera Gnanasinha thero 1964 : 25, 338 verses.
Ibid. 13 verse.
Punchibanda, Op.cit ., 127
Balagalle, Wimal G. Sinhala Bhasawe Prabawaya ha Pravardenaya, Battaramulla: Departmrnt of Cultural
Affairs, 1996. 57.
Ibid, 64.
Wickremasinghe, Martin, Sinhala Sahit yaye Nagima , Gakissa , 1962 : 38.
Amunugama , Sarath, Sanskruthiya Samajaya ha Parisarasaraya , (Cultural Society and Environment) Boralla,
1999: 222
Silva , D.M. , Weliwita Pimkam Varuna, 1899: 143 verse.
Appuhamy Carolis, Kupadi Hatana, 1893 : 13 verse
Ibid, 43 verse.
Wijeweera U., Tharuna Thotilla, 1899: 16 verse.
Gunasekera, W.A. Kawmini Dapana, 1894 :138 verse.
De Silva Albert……… 24 verse.
P.L.D. The Colombo Horse Races, Printed at the Lakdiva Press, 1891
Ibid. , 9, 10 verses.
Ibid., 15, 18 verses.
Kariyawasam, (R.D.P.S), 391
See, Sinhalaye Dravida Balapama, Hissalla Dharmaratana Himi, Gangodawila: mänawa hithawādi lekana
parshadaya, 2001.
Okari Katawa hewat Guru Hatana, 1886: 32 verse.
This book was published in 1870, at Colombo Jambugas widiya by Paulis Fernando 1891: 65 verse.
Siyabaslakara Varnana va , ( Ed). Henpitagedera Gnanasinha Himi, 1964 :1, 3
Ibid., 1, 13
Ibid ., 1, 5.
Ibid., 1, 6.
dalhi kolāhalaya , op.cit., 123. 124 verses.
Ibid., 41 verse
Ibid, 21, 22
Don. P. Arnolis, op.cit., 47. 59. 60 verses.
Nakatta, Matale, Kusaraja Mangalya , 1894: 107 verse.
Raga Masivilla, 1889: 80 verse.
Gunaratne, Pativratha Vada Viniscaya, 1896 : 41 verse.
Kariyawasam, Op.cit ., 1996: 208.
J.A. Ayasasoka Malaya, 1893 : 40 verse.
Dusseelawatha or Recognizing the Mark of an Immoral Person. J.A. Perera of Colombo, Printed in the Lakmini
Pahan Printing Press, 1887 : 22 verse.
Wijeweera, Taruna Totilla, 1896 : 26
De Silva Albert, Kawmini Kalamba, 1890 : 8
Budumula Upata, 1893: 127
Adara Ratna Malaya……80
So Kaw Mal Dama, 1895: 105, 111, 114.
Ranahansa Malaya, 15, 13.
Raga Masivilla, 1889 : 24 76
Nandana, Kummasa Pinda Jatakaya, 1895 : 137 139
Hewawasam P B G, matara yugaye sāhitiyadarayan ha sāhitiya nibandana, Colombo: Department of Cultural
Affairs, 1966
Muvadewdavata Sannaya, (Ed) Kongastenne Ananda Himi, 1997: xxxvi.
Kangahaarachchi T.B. ,"sinhala padiye ārambaya hā vikāshanaya " (The Beginning and Transformation of
Sinhala Poetry) Venerable Henpitagedera Gnanasiha Abistawa Sangrahaya, (Ed) Henpitagedera Gnanawasa
Himi and some others. Colombo: Gunaratna & Company, 1979:138 – 139.
De Silva, Bastian, Go Ghatanaya , (Slaughtering of cows) 1894: 48.
Elu Sandas Lakuna. (Ed). Kahawe Shri Sumangala Himi, 1935:208.
Fernando Mariyana, 1895: 319.
Prera K.R. ………17.
Elu Sandas Lakuna. (Ed), Kahawe Shri Sumangala Himi, 1935: 250.
Prera K.R., Sudu Hatanaya, 1895: 28.
De Silva Albert, Ka v Mini Kalamba, 1890: 6.
Silopadaya, 1887: 58.
Alalu Katava, 1872: 107.
Elusandas Lakuna, 1938: 81.
Nanda Himi, Akuratiye, Sinhala Silo Sahitya , 1989: 1
W.J., Passasum Hara, 1892: 2.
Punyakarmalamkaraya, 1890 : 46
Siyabas Lakara Varnnava , 397
Heladiv Abhidhanavata, (Ed). Kirielle Gnanawimala thero, 1961.
. Satya Samuccaya
Sarasavi Sandarasa , 1888 : 10, 26
Lak Rivi Kirana, 1896: 02 . 12
Ibid., 12
The Sidat Sangarawa, (Ed) James de Alwis, 1852 : Introduction – ix
Chaudhuri Rosinka, Gentleman Poets in Colonial Bengal (Emerging Nationalism and the Orientalist Project),
Calcutta: Naveen Kishore, Seagull Books Pvt. Limited, 2002.
Silva, N. Catherine, Anganagunadapana, Welitara, 1894.
Wickramasinha Martin, Sahitya kruthi ekatuva, Dehiwala. Thisara publisher. 1992. 332
Paranavithana, K.D. James de Alwis' Fiction and Letters, Cultural Affairs Dept. Colombo: 1996.
James de Alwis wrote many books of verses under various topics which are discussed here.
Paranavitana K.D. , Op.cit., 12.
Dharmadasa, K.N.O., "yatat vijitha yugaye äthivu hela bodu punarudaya " ape sanskrutika urumaya. Ministry
of Cultural and Religious Affairs. Nugegoda: Deepani Publications, 1995. 2.
Sarach chandra, "mātara- colomba krutiwalin ape sāhitiya shestraya palalva giya häti" sāhitya dārā.(Ed), P.G.
Punchihewa and others. Maradana: 1960.
Sirimane, Works of G.B.Senanayake, 1985: 162.
Ibid , 162.
Kariyawasam, Sahitiye Vardanayata Puvatpat Kalawe Dayakatvaya , S āhithya vishesha kalāpaya. Battaramulla:
Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 1987, 13.
Kariyawasam, Batahira Sahithya Vicara Pravesaya , (Western Literature Criticism ) 1996 : 141.
Ekanayake, Punchibanda, Op.cit., 170
Ibid., 60
Sarach chandra, Na vakathawe Vikasanaya ha Vicaraya, 26
Helen Ruth Bass and Diane Morilla, Prose and Poetry, (A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding
Literature)Weston Watch Publisher, Portland, Maine, 1998, 81.
J. Dore, Chinese Narrative Poetry, United States of America: Duke University Press, 1988: 104, 105.
Targeting Text, Blek Education, Narrative, Poetry, Drama, 2002, p. 4.
E.D.J , nimi jātaka kāvya, ( 1899).
Themiya Jataka Viridu Pota, 1886: 67 verse
Ummagga Jataka Kavya, 1874, 300 verse
Velada Rajya Mangalya, 1893, 130 verse.
Kavisekera, Kummasa Pinda Jataka Kavya , 1895, 173 verse.
Appuhamy, Tun Yahalu Puwata,, Kapiri Kumarayage Katawa, Tarka Jataka Kavya.
Nakaththa, Matale, Kusa Rajya Mangalya, 1894; 111 verse.
Pr era Hendrick, 1877: 169 verse.
Perera K.R. Dewa Dharma Jatakya, 1886: 83 verse.
Perera, duliyanu katāva , ( The murder that took place near the Hultsdorf Courts or Juliyanu Story otherwise
Awawada Maldama) Saraswathy Printers 1895.
Ibid, 28 verse.
Sipiri Malaya . published by V. Carolis Appuhamy. Printed in Colombo, lukmini Palaga Printers, 1888.
Prera C. Katugampola Hatanaya, Lakrikirana Printers. 1892
Ibid., 3, 4 verses.
Ibid ., 41 verse.
Marakkala Hatane or Sinhala Marakkala Conflict, This book was printed & published in 1870, Colombo Jambu
gas veediye, by Paulis Fernando E S Lava sampadanaye karana ladi, No. 37, Nil Veediye Colombo, 1891. 34
verse
Ibid., 56. verse
Perakadoru Hatana, Printed in Colombo, 1869.
Ibid., 27, 28 verses.
Ibid., 112 verse.
sathyālankāraya, vol: 4, 1876, May - October 4 Wednesday – Paper 113, 114.
Don William Appuhamy, isth ri gñānābilāsaya hewath isthri näna abilasa , Published by Udawatte
Appuhamilage residing in Sedawatte. (Colombo: Lankābinawa Vishrutha Printing Press, 1894)
Orsini Fransesca, op.cit., 111
Ibid., 8.
. Wickramasinha Nira , (B.S.S) 78.
" With the growth of the Sinhala printing industry in the latter half of the 19th century, a considerable number of
ballads concerning Buddhist themes and folk literature came to be printed. These had existed as oral literature earlier and
also in manuscript form. This literature when printed was meant for the ordinary Sinhala Buddhist reader, and it would
have created a novel awakening among them. " Tilak Kularathna 175.
See Orsini's Book, Print and Pleasure.
C.E Godakumbura. Sinhalese Literature ( Department of Cultural Affairs, 1996), 277 .
( He has described popular poetry as buddhist studies.The story of pattini, religious ballads, secular stories,
cultivators' songs )
Silva de W. Arthur, The Popular Poetry of the Sinhalese, (reprint from Journal No. 68 Part 1., Volume xxiv., 1915 – 16, of the
Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch), The Colombo Apothecaries Co. Ltd. 1917
Ibid , 3,4.
Chandrasiri Himi Olaganwatte, Nuthana Sinhala Padya sahithye Pasubima (The Background of Modern
Sinhala Poetical Literature) , Maradana: Godage Publishers, 2009.
Ian Haywood , The Revolution in popular literature ( print , Politics and people , 1790 - 1860),
(Cambridge University Press , 2004), 2
The transfomatoin of popular literature in the 1840 s can only be fully understood by placeing
it within a longer process of political and cultural change.
Ariya Rajakaruna, 'nūthana sinhala kāvya: 1850 – 1960' visiwana sathawarsaye sri lankawe bāsā
sāhithya laksana. (Ed). K. Jayathilaka and others, (Colombo: Godage and Brothers, 2008), 373 .
E. R Sarachchandra ' Language and Literature in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'
-History of Ceylon - vol:111 (Ed.), K.M.de. Silva (Peradeniya: Univeristy of Ceylon,1973), 243
J. Heather Sharkey, Living with Colonialism ( Nationalism and Culture in the Anglo - Egyptian Sudan)
London: University of California Press , 2003), 2.
K.M .de De Silva, ' Nineteenth Century Origins of Nationalism in Ceylon' (H.O.C .1981), 259.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Visiwana siyawase padya sahithya (Sinhalese Verse of the 20 th Century: The Landmarks of a Century -The Characterisitics of Language and Literature in Sri Lanka)
- Palliyaguru Chandrasiri
Chandrasiri, Palliyaguru, Visiwana siyawase padya sahithya (Sinhalese Verse of the 20 th Century: The Landmarks of a Century -The Characterisitics of Language and Literature in Sri Lanka) Ed. K. Jayatilake et al, Godage & Brothers, 2008
This article contains views on literature expressed by literary writers like Punchibandara Sannasgala
- P Tissa Kariyawasam
- Meemana Malalgoda
- Sagara Prematilake
- Martin Palansuriya
- Angulugaha Wickremasinghe
- K D P Dhamminda
- Wickremasinghe
This article contains views on literature expressed by literary writers like Punchibandara Sannasgala, Tissa Kariyawasam, P.Malalgoda, Meemana Prematilake, Sagara Palansuriya, Martin Wickremasinghe, Angulugaha Dhamminda, K.D.P. Wickremasinghe, Ananda Rajakaruna etc.
38 Read more 'The Origins of National Consciousness
- Anderson Benedict
Anderson Benedict, Imagined Communities, London: Meard Street, 2006, 38 Read more 'The Origins of National Consciousness'
Religious Activities and the Development of a New Poetical Tradition In Sinhalese 1852-1906
- Kariyawasam
Kariyawasam, Religious Activities and the Development of a New Poetical Tradition In Sinhalese 1852-1906' (Ph.D. Dissertation,) University of London, 1973. 351.
- Dokan Wickramasinha
- Martino De Zilva
Wickramasinha, Dokan Martino de Zilva, Catalogue of Sinhalese Printed Books in the British Museum, London: Printed by Gilbert and Rivinhton Limited, St. John's House, Clerkenwell E.C., 1901; Samaraweera,Vijaya, World Bibliographical Series -Volume -20, Sri Lanka Clio Press,
OIH -954, 93 -British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
- St
- Thomas' Street
- England Oxford
St.Thomas' Street, Oxford, England, 1987; OIH -954, 93 -British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data; Ware. W. Bibliogaphy on Ceylon, University of Miami Press, 1962, OIH -954. 93;
A Bibliography of Ceylon, volumes 1-5; ORM 21 -Sinhalese -British Library Oriental Collections
- H A I Goonatilaka
Goonatilaka H.A.I., A Bibliography of Ceylon, volumes 1-5; ORM 21 -Sinhalese -British Library Oriental Collections, Sinhalese Printed Books, 1902 -1977 microscopic tapes
chirantana sinhala sāhitiya vicāra cintanaye vikāshanaya
- Punchibanda Ekanayake
Ekanayake, Punchibanda, chirantana sinhala sāhitiya vicāra cintanaye vikāshanaya, Samayawardana Publications, Maradana,1999, 135
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341482654_The_Poetical_Works_and_the_Poetic_Language_during_the_British_Period_in_Sri_Lanka_Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society_of_Sri_Lanka_New_Series_Vol_59_No_1_2014_pp_49-112
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