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Abstract This article discusse new poetical tradition and salient features of 19th centaury of British colonial period of Sri Lanka. The language features and metric components (virit) are highlighted. Moving concurrently are the features of popular poetry and narrative poetry and gentlemen poetry to be disscueed. The dawn of printing technology gave rise to the popular pamphlet poetic tradition (kavil kola) this is also discussed. The new poetic tradition is considered to be a transition period in modern literature. Most materials used in this study have been obtained from publications and materials available at the Colombo Museum, the Department of Historic Documents in the main Library of the University of Peradeniya, the Asia and African Sections and Social Science Sections of the British Library in London.

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The Poetical Works and the Poetic Language during the British Period in Sri Lanka

by

Ven. Olaganwatte Chandrasiri

Printing Technology and the New Literary Movement

In the 19th century during the British colonial rule, the printing industry began in earnest and

expanded considerably and as a result many booklets of Sinhalese verse were published. There is

a marked difference between the poetry of the Colombo Period, (1930 to 1950s which is also

known as the Colombo School of Poetry) and the poetry that originated in the 19th century.

Contemporary scholars who review the literature of Sri Lanka opine that the trend in modern

literature set in after 1815. The main reason for this was that the division of the Sinhala literary

eras was defined according to the capital of the kingdom, 1815 being the date when the capital

shifted to Colombo when the British annexed the whole of Sri Lanka.

Chandrasiri Palliyaguru's

study regarding the emergence of the Colombo Poets' era in his article 'The Sinhalese verses of

the 20th century' ( Visivana Siyavasē Sinhala Kāv yaya

) is illustrative of this. Accordingly, the

conclusion one can draw is that there is a general agreement that the Kandy/Matara eras - that is

from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th ce ntury - are the forerunners of 'the

new poetical era or the Colombo era.

Though there may be some truth in this, it needs further investigation. It was quite evident

that from the middle of the 19th century, signs began to appear of the background necessary for a

new poetical era. There was a strong connection between the printing industry that was

expanding as a commercial enterprise and the new poetical movement that was emerging.

Benedict Anderson (2006) speaking of Europe mentions that at the beginning of the printing

technology, printing of books expanded as a major commercial enterprise which brought in much

profit.

There was a similar parallel in Sri Lanka between money earning enterprises and the

printing of books. Tissa Kariyawasam (1973) says that at the beginning, there were some

entrepreneurs who thought the printing industry was a profitable venture. They went in search of

poets, got them to compose poetry books which they printed and sold or distributed for money.

This printing for profit was not confined only to books of poems, but it applied to all forms of

books. The development of the printing technology in Sri Lanka took place concurrently with the

development of the North Indian printing technology in the 19th century. Francesa Orsini's work

(2009) titled Print and Pleasure, discusses these aspects. As Orsini points out, the development

of the printing industry developed on parallel lines with the North Indian printing industry and

manifested some common characteristics:

A. Books published in different language editions (government text books, fiction, story

books etc.);

B. Books written in more than one language;

C. A few books where the text in the same language was printed in more than one edition;

and

D. The existence of more than one print language in the same market.

This article covers not only some of the poems of then 19th century Ceylon, but a number of

books in different languages and subjects. They can be categorized under Sinhala, Tamil and

English languages.

Text books on religion, medicine, astrology and poetry come under these

categories. After the middle of the 19 th century, in North Indian society, books were published as

pilgrimage guides, prayer books and other religious publications.

Moreover, there were books

published on general subjects which fell under different categories, as follows:

01. Oral performance - either listening to performers or a song sung by a singer;

02. Reading aloud – this kind of reading was mostly done at home, among family members

and neighbours;

03. An almost silent one in which the reader moved his or her lips, mouthing but not uttering

the words – this kind of silent reading was used for religious books and prayers; and

04. Silent reading – when reading fiction such as novels.

These new poetic traditions emerged to cater to the tastes of the new reading public in the then

Ceylon society, whose inclination to literature was well-known by that time. The changes in

society definitely contributed to the changes in poetical traditions, and it marked the beginning of

a major change in Sinhalese literature.

In the 19th century, particularly after the 1870s, a new

generation of readers for the novel came up.

With the increase of both poetry and novels,

especially the birth of modern verse, the background required for such literature to flourish was

provided by the printing technology.

Religious Faith and Beliefs in Deities as Expressed in Poetry

Classical poems like Kāvyaśekara, Guttila K āvya (Kotte Period 1412–1597), begin by invoking

the blessings of the Triple Gem (the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha), and also blessings

and refuge of the deities were invoked after presenting a list of names of the deities. This was a

common pattern followed by almost all the writers of poetry during and after the Kotte era. The

poet's objective was to invoke blessings and protection for all human beings and to save them

from all evil effects that might fall on them.

The Kotte period poem titled Ka v Lakuṇ u

Miṇimal was composed adhering to auspicious moments.

In the Siyabas Mal Dama, after

completing the preliminary requirements, the poet seeks the blessings of the deities.

bamba surapati suraguru nātha

nabasara sirisara saratara bara neta

bambakata ada häma suraṅgana kara meta

suba seta dī raku me häma lova sata

"Brahma, Jupiter, Pattini Dēvi, May all these deities bless and protect human beings".

There were instances when the deities were invoked for assistance to avoid faults in the metrical

combination of syllables in their compositions.

nitara devindune oba pihiai mema a

nitara dinen dina set dī rakinu tua

nitara memage kividosa duru karannaa

patala karami oba guṇa siyalu satahaa

"Deity, give us your continuous assistance. Give us your daily blessings and protect us.

Always (help me to) get rid of the faults in my verses. I will continue to spread your virtues

among all beings".

The most popular female deity in the Kandyan era was Pattini.

The cult of Goddess

Pattini was transmitted from South India, and the literature based on that cult had spread to Sri

Lanka.

It is to be also noted that the very last rulers of the Kandyan kingdom (1469–1815)

were Nayakkar Tamils. At the end of the 19th century, we come across instances when Pattini's

blessings were invoked.

sidda daham Pattini Sāmi asanu

sadda gī nä um kelipuda obaa ganu

vädda nodī ena uvaduru dura harinu

sidda salan salamin ā vā lana

"O Pattini, the pure and noble, listen to me, kindly accept this song and dance. Save us from the

calamities that befall us" .

sasaga siyal bambalova vasana deiviyani

uraga gurul yak bū nara asurayi ni

nolaga laga vasana diyagoḍa savsatuni

samaga me pin anumodan vanu sama sitini

This poem invokes the deities who live on land and sea, to allow spirits, demons, creeping

and mythical creatures to rejoice in her merit, and transfer the merits to their parents.

dasa masa kusa vädu mavunat – rasa äti bojun dun mage piyanat

äsadun vilasa sat dun mage gurunat – tosakara pin demi nivan daki nat

"Give some of your merit, Oh deity, to my mother who carried me in her womb for ten

months, to my father who gave me tasty food, to my teachers who opened my eyes".

These characteristics can be seen usually in the poetry of the Mahanuwara (Kandy 1469–

1815) and Matara periods (1706-1815). It appears that the poets engaged in the composition of

verses, bestowed merit on the deities and all beings and wished that they would protect them in

return. Thus, it is evident that poetry had a powerful, undertone of the beliefs the people had in

divine beings.

From the beginning of Sinhalese metrical literature, one could find that the compositions

had a Buddhist flavour. The concept of peden budu sirita (expressing the life of the Buddha in

poetical works) continued to prevail until the end of the Mahanuwara (Kandy) era. Folk poets

thought that preaching dhamma in versified form would bestow merit and was a path to heaven.

Poets who composed classical verses set their minds on Jātaka stories and found ideal plots for

their compositions in the genre. The history of Sinhalese verse stories can be traced as far back

as the 12th century CE. The Muvadevdā vata and the Sasadāvata (Polonnaruwa Period 1017-

1215 CE) are two classical poems that belong to this tradition.

The classical writers of prose and verse realized that expressing the virtues of the Buddha was

the most difficult task.

hägim mā menen guṇahimiyā kiyann a a

pohom nel sina unā palandin hot tusara hara

"To make an effort to extol the virtues of the Buddha was such a difficult task like making a

garland of flowers from dew drops and wearing it around one's neck".

munidu guṇa maharu

"The virtues of the Buddha are invaluable".

ma a mage näṇa pama ṇ a

"I shall try within the limits of my knowledge".

kebandu da gatahot munidunge baṇa me

kividu basin kavi karaṇā puda me

bilindu ḷadaruvan keḷinā kala me

taridu alla mäi kala tät väni me

"To express the virtues of the Buddha in the language of the poets is as difficult a task as infants

trying to touch the moon".

abaluvakin vivara

näṇa nimanu bäri samudura

mama mage näṇa vivara

kiyami ätimut varada häradura

"It is impossible to measure the water in the ocean with a mustard seed. I am expressing this

according to my knowledge. What is wrong with that?"

emahe vanum näṇa

abäak pamaṇa men

"My knowledge of praise is as small as a grain of mustard".

vijaya bā pirivena

kiyana baṇa me asan satosina

Certain classical poets, who had used Jātaka stories in their poems, sometimes advised the people

to listen to baṇ a that they preached in versified form.

satadat kivindune

makiyana vadan valine

varadak koa no gene

asava budu bana savan demine

"Poets listen to my words. Without taking offence, listen to the virtues of the Bu ddha" .

munisanda guṇa mahata

asan viyatuni yomā sa vanat

"Listen, oh learned men attentively to the great virtues of the Buddha".

pavuhära pin karaṇu lesin

sav sama baṇa saga tosin

kiviyara yäda tosin

teruvana nämanda manäsin

musu Sinhala basin

kiyam me baṇa asav satosin

"While paying homage to the Triple Gem mentally, listen happily to the ba ṇa that is preached in

mixed Sinhalese language".

With the expansion of the printing industry, poets were able to find new subjects on

which to compose poems. However, poets who preferred traditional folk lore, focused on the

virtues of the Buddha to express their devotion. Some poets described the virtues of the Buddha

in their poetry with the intention of cultivating good qualities in society.

Controversies and Avoiding Errors in Poetry

Many poets were aware that there might be some mistakes either at the initial stages or at the

final stages of their compositions that could lead to accusations directed at them by their reading

public. Thus, they composed poetry being conscious about this.

The enthusiasm that was

aroused by the controversy called savsat dam vādaya continued until the second half of the 19th

century and it had a considerable repercussion on the poets. It was evident that the savsat dam

vādaya had a strong influence on the 19th century poets' way of creative thinking. Therefore,

savsat dam vādaya, and its background needs to be discussed at some length here. A critical

knowledge concerning Buddhist subjects and various other causes sparked the controversies

precipitated by scholars. Different types of controversies had been rampant among bhikkhus

even at the Anuradhapura era (circa 3rd century BCE to 10th century CE).

Yet, it is not easy to

find documentary evidence about such debates that took place in the middle of the 19th century.

Nevertheless, considering the large number of controversies which sprang on various subjects,

it is not incorrect to name this period as a period of controversies.

The social, political and the

economic changes during this particular period were the main reasons that influenced various

types of controversies. These controversies stemmed from manifold causes, led to several serious

changes in the society. It brought about a considerable change in the way of thinking of the

people. Though controversies that occurred at that time can be categorized into literature,

religion, and caste, the majority of them were based on religion.

As a result of these

controversies, a large number of periodicals of various types proliferated.

Of the religious

controversies, special mention should be made of the five great debates with the Christians,

because it was through these debates that an unprecedented Buddhist revival occurred in the 19th

century Sri Lanka. It is a well-known fact that in these religious controversies, doctrinal matters

were frequently a subject of insult.

Nevertheless, the controversies that took place between

Christians and Buddhists indirectly resulted in enriching the Sinhalese language and literature.

Through the translations of some English documents like Olcott's Catechism, the Sinhala

language was also enriched.

As a result of the religious and educational renaissance brought

about by Väliviṭa Saranaṅkara in the 18th century in reviving the upasampadā and the higher

Buddhist learning after the Portuguese destructions of the 16th and 17th centuries, learning and

knowledge spread, both in the up country and the low country. Pupils of Venerable Saranaṅ kara

played a great role in spreading Sinhalese literature and Budhism at that time.

(However, by the

middle half of the 19th century, it had degenerated to a certain extent.) Learning and knowledge

that remained dormant was again enlivened as a result of the controversies that arose among the

bhikkhus on matters relating to Buddhism. Of the controversies on religion, the two most

famous were Adhiṃāsa Vādaya and Pārupana Vādaya.

If the sīmā or boundaries are confused,

it defiles the extreme purity of the upasampadā ceremony. As a result of the debates between the

bhikkhus residing in the Asgiri temple and the Malvatu temple, two books titled Sī ma Saṅkara

Vinodanī and Sī mā Sa ṅ kara Chedanī were written. It is shown that these were written not

exclusively on the subject relating to controversies, but with the intention of promoting learning

and knowledge.

Some of these books were written in reply to the divisions in nikāyas and also

different issues concerning them. Among these books were: Sangabat Beduma (1896) Vivāda

Vinodaniya (1899), Namaskāra Vāda Vid āraṇaya (1899), V ādārambhaka Saṅ grahaya (1900),

Bhikkhu Sīlaya (1893), Sāmagri Darś aṇ aya (1897) Baddha Sīma Viniścaya (1901).

Scholars at

that time commented on matters relating to doctrine as found in the Tripiaka and A uvāva and

tried to establish their own views and opinions pertaining to them. The bhikkhus who were quite

conversant with the Tripi aka had such an extensive knowledge, which was a great advantage for

them in their debates with the Christian priests.

Therefore, bhikkhus were inclined to discuss

philosophical issues that have not been touched by the Chritians.

Also there arose a number of

literary debates during that period which made beneficial influence on Sinhala literature at that

time. The biggest controversy that arose on a matter of academic interest was the Ga ṅgārohaṇa

Varṇanāva (1806) which resulted in the savsat dam vāda ya .

Savsat Dam Vādaya Controversy

In the first half of the 19th century, Davith de Saram of Matara, an eminent devotee,

organized

a great religious ceremony called the gaṅgārohaṇ a pinkama in the Matara Nilvala Ganga. Based

on this grand event, a book of poems called Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva was composed. Although

the poems in the book are described as gaṅ garu Va ṇanā ,

the book of poems became famous as

the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva . At the end of the book, the poet identifies himself as Govikule

Samarasekera Dissanayake.

The poet presents two reasons for composing the poem. With the use of metres, the poet

hopes to generate in the common man an aesthetic delight and appreciation, as well as Buddhist

virtues in them. The other reason, according to him, was to glorify and appreciate the noble

deeds of Saram Mudali who initiated the religious ceremony that inspired the writing of the book

of poems. In the first decade of the 19th century, there had been prolonged discussions on the

usage of orthography and alliteration in composing verses. The debates that arose concerning one

stanza of the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva dragged on throughout the whole century and were able

to kindle a vibrant literary awakening. Mihiripenne Dharmaratana Thero (1806) pointing out

some faults in the arrangement of syllables in the first stanza of the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva,

led to a serious controversy on poetics. Many learned scholars of the 19 th century were involved

in this controversy which came to be known as savsat dam vādaya. Wh en considering the

persons who participated in this controversy, it becomes clear that some have joined the debate

out of their interest in learning and the arts, while some have joined to exhibit their pedantry and

pride.

Abeysinghe Mudali challenged Mihiripenna Thero twice to point out the faults in the

verses. The faults Mihiripenna Thero pointed out were not related to the sentiments expressed in

the poem, which should have been regarded as its essence, but due to some technical defects

such as the incorrect arrangement of syllables.

Thus, it was apparent that the motive of those

who got involved in this controversy was to exhibit their learning that could enhance their

personal image. However, this controversy can be treated as a blessing as it brought to surface

many elements related to the composition of poetry such as errors in prosody, and other matters,

opinions and different views, weaknesses in grammar, incorrect use of alien languages, the need

to study eastern languages, religious ideas and opinions, etc.

The savsat dam vādaya which began in 1807 had been forgotten for some time, but

reappeared for the second time creating a tremendous awakening in Sinhala literature. James de

Alwis's Sidat Sa ṅgarāva, written in English and published in 1851, states in its introduction that

poet Dissanayake's intention was correct and Mihiripenna Thero's views were wrong and show

the incorrect places in the two stanzas.

As James de Alwis' book was written in English, most

of the Sinhalese scholars who had very little knowledge of English would have taken some time

to grasp comprehensively the reasons given in it. Some people because of the criticism of de

Alwis spoke disparagingly of Mihiripenne Dharmaratana Thero and slighted his education and

knowledge of poetry.

By the time these views emerged, Mihiripenne Dharmaratana Thero was

no longer living, and therefore, his student Koggala Dhammatilake (1851) took up the cause of

his preceptor. This bhikkhu disrobed later, but came to be regarded as the leading debater in the

savsat dam vādaya.

After James de Alwis' criticism began, arguments of both sides in the

debate were used in the year 1854, but as there was nobody to pass judgment on the debate, it

came to an end inconclusively.

The Influence on Poetical literature

It was quite evident that the savsat dam vādaya exerted a strong influence on the poetical

literature of the 19th century. Partly due to this reason, Sinhala poetry became interesting to the

reader. After the 1850s, the printing industry made major strides and its contribution to these

debates was immeasurable. It should be specially mentioned that from the beginning, newspapers

and magazines gave prominence to these debates. It was due to these debates that the magazines

like Yatalaba (1854) and Sās trālaṅkāraya (1853) were published. Koggala Dhammatilake Thero

and Sitinamaluve Dharmarama Thero wrote many articles to the S āstrālaṅkāra magazine.

It

was a scholar named D. K.P. Ubayasekera, who at the beginning, wrote a number of articles in

the Sāstrālaṅkāraya challenging the views of Dharmaratana Thero. From April 1854, similar

articles continued to appear in the Yatalaba magazine edited by Pandit Batuwantudawe. Many

people who took part in the debate wrote under pseudonyms. There is no doubt that many

learned scholars of that time were involved in these debates. The Yatalaba magazine was started

mainly for the purpose of continuing this debate, and articles of Batuwantudawe as well as James

de Alwis on the debate may have appeared under pseudonyms.

A verse published in

Sāstrālaṅkāra reveals that Ubayasekera was the pseudonym of Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero.

"The verses published under the name of Ubayasekera were no doubt composed by Hikkaduwe

Sumangala Thero".

It is quite interesting to find that Hikkaduwe Sumangala Thero had joined the debate.

From his childhood, he had displayed a penchant for various subjects relating to language and

education. With the beginning of the middle half of the 19th century, many people who were

erudite in languages showed a great interest in Sinhalese poetry, and Hikkaduwe Sumangala

Thero.

He was an opponent of the Saram camp (party) and did not hesitate to show how

incorrect their views and opinions were.

It is especially important to note that when learned

bhikkhus in the calibre of Koggala Dhammatilake and Hikkaduwe Sumangala got involved in

this debate, many lay people too were dragged into it. Through this debate, a powerful challenge

was aimed at the status of bhikkhus for being involved in literary activities. A handwritten note

by the Christian James de Alwis who was actively involved in this debate was found (the

handwritten commission) on 01.12.1853, which reads:

dam rada sasunamralasa sadev yasas mutu

dam soṅda lesa digambu nurata lakala dimutu

dam pada hasala novitara satahu mitu

dam nada yati nadana däka me pata diya yutu

"The Dhammananda doctrine which nobody has learnt, shines in many forms in the sāsana

which is as boundless as the sky. Give this note to Dhammananda Thero when you meet him".

"… In view of the blessings that are sent … you have not written about any of the reasons

mentioned in my letter to you. You are very immature. But if I debate with you ... this time the

merit will go to Batuwantudawe guru's pupil James de Alwis".

In the course of this controversy, James de Alwis has subjected Dhammananda Thero to a

cynical treatment using Dam Nada, the pseudonym of the latter.

Most people believe that modern Sinhala literary criticism begins with the savsat dam

vādaya.

Yet, from the middle of the 19th century, many features of the Western literature can be

found in our literature. Criticism of poetry was one of these. In the Preface to the English

translation of the Sidat Saṅgarāva, James de Alwis (1823-1878) claims that it was the first book

written on the subject of criticism of poetry. In his literary criticisms, he had adopted theories of

criticism of poetry as well as other supporting theories of literary criticism prevalent in some

Western countries.

Thus, a bilingual scholar like James de Alwis' criticism of savsat dam

vādaya was influenced by theories of Western literary criticism.

In the first decades of the 20th

century, inspired by Alwis, there were several writers who took to literary criticism and editing

classical works. Among them were W.S. Gunawardena, Mendis Gunasekera, Martin

Wickremasinghe and Kumaratunga Munidasa. Following in the footsteps of Wasala Mudali

Gunawardena who showed an interest in literature, subsequent scholars like Kumaratunga drew

inspiration from these debates to criticize classical literature.

The participants in this debate

without using the mixed language found in classical literature, used the language that was in

common parlance, and it was the first time that such language was used for literary purposes.

Another notable feature was that the 20th century poets used a very appropriate, simple language

in their writings and the Sinhala language was moulded as a result of this debate.

kaḍiyan tuḍuvan  uḍ a vasa piri se

eḍiyen däyen doḍavana vila se

väḍiyen maḍa pän bī vel pede se

mäḍiyan baka bakaye haṅḍa dena se

päduru kapana mīyan hā samānan -----------

"These persons talk with great courage. The more they talk and make noises, the more they

resemble the frogs that live in the paddy fields drinking mud and water, and the rats that gnaw on

the mats".

pi a paa gasamin audin surāpāna sālā

kaa mäta gonnak rā bomin matava ulā

kaa keḷa räule hosse konen väk kerilā

koa koa ävidin gen geat kolā halā

"Drinking toddy and getting intoxicated with spit dripping down the beard and face, go from

house to house and make a commotion".

On account of the fact that the debaters used a large number of words unfamiliar to the

Sinhala language, they were subjected to very strong criticism by some learned scholars. Their

opinion was that when composing verses, poets should draw inspiration from the language found

in classical literature.

Thus, the use of simple spoken language in writings could be found in

many books of verses. As one would see, the savsat dam vādaya had exerted a strong influence

to build up to this situation. To establish their own views and opinions, the debaters had quoted

frequently from classical literature, both prose and verse. This aroused a keen interest among the

people to read the classical literature, which was already available in print.

This debate paved

the way for the appearance of a number of books written on controversies. It was due to these

books that the readers' curiosity was greatly aroused about reading and writing.

In the books

on debates coming under our review, there are instances of personal attacks trying to discredit

each other. Another notable feature is that the savsat dam vādaya contributed indirectly to revive

subjects like prosody and ornateness in poetry.

There was no continuous tradition of ornate

poetry despite the proliferation of the printing industry. Especially in the Mahanuwara and

Matara periods, metre in stanzas was a popular feature. In the savsat dam vādaya, it was seen

that the debaters made use of both prose and verse and there were occasions when they mixed

metre in stanzas. On some occasions, it was obvious that they paid no attention to metre. The

fact that they paid no attention to meter had influenced other contemporary poets too.

Particularly in the 20th century to express new experiences, there arose a need to seek new metres

and sometimes to disregard metres altogether.

Some people opine that it is a misnomer to state

that the controversy over the savsat dam vādaya led the way to literary criticism. Nevertheless,

it is evident that the beginning of modern literary criticism emerged with this controversy.

It

was due to this debate, that people became aware of the existence of certain criteria to be applied

in literary criticism.

During this period, poets used various devices to avoid their poetry being

criticized by others.

The savsat dam vādaya seems to have a direct influence on the poets of

that period. In the 19 th century, writers who composed verses were largely influenced by the

Gaṅgārohaṇa Varṇanāva. Between the end of the 19 th century and the first half of the 20th

century, there sprang a large number of poems describing the various meritorious acts performed

during that period, and those poems reflected a direct influence of the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a

Varṇanāva.

In the past, kings contributed generously to promote the development of classical Sinhala

literature. Some literary works were written at the request of those kings. However, after 1505

CE, foreign invasions disrupted the whole social system and as a result, the kings as well as their

officials had no time to take an interest in the sphere of literature. But, later this situation

changed. At the beginning of the 19 th century, the literary awakening in the south was spurred on

by the students of Väli viṭ a Sa ṅ ghar āja Thero who had reintroduced Buddhist higher learning.

The resident bhikkhus of the pirivenas and the leading Sinhala Buddhists such as Mudliyars and

Muhandirams, who served under the British government at that time, were the leading figures of

this movement.

Nevertheless during the Mahanuwara and Matara periods, high ranking

personnel, in order to project their image in society, extended patronage to various social events.

Thus, certain people who had gained prominence in the 19 th century sometimes did not hesitate

to extend their patronage to religious and social activities. Several notable families who hailed

from the south, extended their unstinted patronage to bring about a revival in the spheres of

literary, religious and social activities. Outstanding among them were the lineages of Vidagama,

Samarakoon, Don Lawrence Navaratne, Illangakoon, Saram Mudali, Don Simon Dissanayake,

Wijesinghe and Gajanayake. It is clear that some of those leading personages extended their

patronage voluntarily to many of the poetical works that come under our scrutiny. The fact that

the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva had received the special patronage of Saram Mudali, may have

prompted other persons to extend their patronage to similar books of verses. The generation of

students of Väliviṭa Saṅ gh ar āja Thero achieved what they wanted by way of the savsat dam

vādaya. To this category belonged Sitinamaluwe Dhammajoti, Karatota Dharmarama, Saliele

Maniratana, Wiragule Guru, Walpola Guru and others. The educational activities that expanded

into Sabaragamuwa and some parts of the Western province continued to develop until the 19th

century.

Nevertheless, the Ga ṅgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva, the result of which was savsat dam

vādaya, manifested not only the creative characteristics of the renaissance initiated by Väliviṭ a

Saranaṅ kara Thero, but also had several other far-reaching characteristics.

Those who participated in the savsat dam controversy also went on further to discuss such

technicalities as ancient metres, poetic embellishments etc. To express their own ideas, they

frequently used verse rather than prose. Since it was a new experience that kindled the interest of

the reading public, for those who had the talent to compose, it was an inducement for them to test

their creativity. In the 19th century, poetic compositions on various subjects were written on the

inspiration of the sav sat dam vādaya, and it subsequently created a great impact on the creations

of the later poets. Nevertheless, most of the books of verses published could not reach that

standard set by classical poets. The reason for this was that some poets wanted only to send

across their message to the reader paying scant regard to the quality of their poetry. In classical

poetical literature, although the poets made no deliberate attempt to evade criticism, poets of the

Kotte period seemed to be quite sensitive to such criticism.

basa dosa ätat e da

"If there are any errors in the language, …"

dunot hasekua vara

kiridiya ekaa vat kara

diyära kiribonu yura

dosära guṇaya  a ganimi paṅḍivara

"To separate flaws from poetry and take only what is correct is like giving a swan milk and

water and expecting it to separate the milk from the water and drink it".

yut at misak dosätak mehi noma rägena

met sit bejetvā kav rasaya viṅdi mina

"Take what is proper or just, reject what is improper or unjust, and enjoy these verses with a

compassionate mind".)

me dän kiyana kavi duu varadakine

metin kam vadā muniguna bä vine

"If there are any flaws in this poetry, bear up those with a compassionate mind".

jalayen kiri venkara bona hasa raja vilasin nuvanina

saruvan rut ganimin dos duralavā yuhu sulu no vaina

"In the manner of a swan separating milk from water, discard the errors and take only the

precious meaning".

One comes across certain classical poets of previous centuries who occasionally appealed

to the readers to appreciate any merit they found in their poems.

itidu hota kiyam guṇalobini lohimiya

menehi varada nobajav guṇekät nam mehi nobajav

"I praise the Buddha's merits and speak highly about his virtues. If there are any errors in these

verses, do not worry about those. Take only the virtue in those, if there is any".

Some poets made an effort to write poetry using similes and discarding the flaws.

kiyan neda yavahan ära ivataa

miyen mekavipada matupat dahasaa

"Read these verses after discarding what is unnecessary so that in the future, thousands can

enjoy them".

The poet of Bentara Lakara's wish was that his poems should reach only the good and

desirable people and not the undesirable people. During that period, it was sometimes apparent

that criticism was not tolerated.

ese heyin me māge gärahī men

dos vikramhi sitän u

pudana satasatan vilhi nogos met guṇen yut

sudana sudana sa ňda räshi gos kelitvā satosnen

("Therefore, my poetry should not go into the hands of undesirable people, but only to those

who are virtuous and compassionate".

It is clear that from some of their statements, these writers had an understanding not only of

creative verses, but also about rhyme, prosody, rhetoric etc.

"Many important people condemn my poetry. According to gaṇayo (an insulting term used for

bhikkhus coming from the period after the Portuguese destruction when there were not fully

ordained bhikkhus), this verse of four lines has not followed the rules of prosody".

It was

apparent that critics did not have much room for criticism like this when poetry was getting

rooted in the society as a popular form of literature. By the end of the 19th century, one could see

that poetry had earned itself a position in the society as a medium of communication.

Usage of Language, Traditions and the Emergence of New Trends

When studying the poetical works of the 19 th century, it is very important to pay attention to the

use of language. The Siyabaslakara (9th century CE) shows the manner in which poetic words

should be arranged through poetic license. The dictum rasavat saňdahā savan piya bas

shows

how words should be used in poetry. Even when poetic literature was first initiated, poets were

very concerned about the level of erudition and errors occurring in poetic language. The

admonition in the Siyabaslakara was that composing poetry should be done by using the

Siyabasa (vernacular) only.

However, one can find a mixture of languages in the compositions

of later poets.

Books such as Hansa Sandēsaya reveal that in the Kotte era, poets used pure

Sinhalese as well as a hybrid language mixed with Sanskrit in their compositions. In the history

of the evolution of the present-day Sinhala language, the impact of other languages such as Pali,

Sanskrit, Tamil, Portuguese, Dutch, and English can be seen easily. It is clear that these

languages, one by one, did not contribute much to the evolution of the Sinhala language, and the

extent of the influence of such languages was limited.

From the first half of the 16th century for

about one and a half centuries, the coastal areas of Sri Lanka were governed by the Portuguese

who spread Catholic beliefs by force under the direct instructions from the Pope in the form of

Papal Bulls; after them, the Protestant Dutch governed the same areas; finally for about another

one and a half centuries, the whole country was governed by the English who exerted a fairly

strong influence on the language and the culture of the country.

It is a well-known fact that the knowledge of languages declined during the Kandyan

period which was geographically hemmed in by European colonisers. The greatness of

Venerable Saranaṅkara Sangharāja Thero, who ushered in a cultural revival to bring back what

was lost due to European barbarities, brought some hope. Ruled by three foreign nations, the

language and literature of the country at that time became greatly influenced by their language

and literature. Numerous Portuguese, Dutch and English words entered the common man's

vocabulary. Certain contemporary scholars who did research on alien influences in the Sinhala

language have written several articles on this subject. The Orientalist (Vol, 1223 & Voll. ll,

11.155), which carried an article titled 'Influence of the Portuguese and Dutch Languages on the

Sinhalese and Tamils' by Mudhouse, was one such article. However, some Portuguese, Dutch

and English words that had entered the common man's phraseology could be seen in most of the

poems composed during that period (19th century). Because of the influence of the lineage of

South Indian Nayakkār kings on the Kandyan kingdom, many Tamil words crept into the

colloquial as well as written Sinhala. Nevertheless, it should be mentioned that Tamil words had

infiltrated the Sinhala language from the Dambadeni period onwards. Accordingly, we should

recognize that South Asian classical languages like Pali and Sanskrit, and Western languags like

Portuguese, Dutch and English, and in addition the Tamil language, had to a certain extent,

influenced the poetry of the 19th century. The triad named Piyummā l ā , Nam Ruvan Mā l ā ,

Nāmāvaliya (Kotte Period) contained the names of the books that were helpful for poets to

improve their poetry as well as their education. Since the appearance of Kavu Lakuṇu Miṇimal in

the 15th century up to the first half of the 19th century, not a single book on poetics appeared

which could be explained by the destruction of the culture due to colonial oppression.

Nevertheless, to compose verses, poets used a mixture of pure Sinhala words and words

borrowed from foreign languages. This mixture of Sinhala and non-Sinhala words was used

purely with the intention of making the language simple for the common man to easily

understand. Poets of that period generally used the classical language to compose their verses.

Controversies on religion and language that took place during this period paved the way to form

an idiomatic language that influenced other literary creations as well. However, this idiomatic

language changed to simple Sinhala according to the prevailing times as depicted in Hikkaduwe

Thero's letters and articles relating to his debates.

Since some Sinhala writers had received an

English education, a few English words were inadvertently borrowed.

To illustrate this, it is

necessary to cite examples from poetry books written during that period. It is not possible to

show how English poetry exerted a direct influence on the poetry of Sinhala writers of the 19 th

century. Nevertheless, it is evident that there had been diverse influences for the spread of the

English medium education in Sri Lankan society. During the British rule, it was but natural to

have knowledge of English. It helped English speaking people to assert a higher position in the

colonial society. An admixture of English words also helped Sinhala writers to master alliteration

in poetry.

bristol räsvoränti namäti hotel eke

'm aster' kage 'post' eke sii Jecob nam ū

'm ist' saha G.T. Wijesekara mäti tos ū

' l uster' lesa 'open' kaḷa vesesin 'very good'

'bristol räsvoränti nam hotel ekak disu'

aviya a mātrā madi unāa ka  a  a mihiri rasa kohinda

istäil lesaa meun karatta pia nägilā

räkam nova virājita mā siri vatu ti

äsme ataa bamavā puňgilo balati

biskat källak suratin rägena kati

isket vi nam häragena yam se yuvati

On some occasions, it is seen that English words were used to give alliteration to the verses:

rahas pahas doḍamin piyama sinā - sudu

digäs petät mahatun sakala sinā-

"that is nice" kiyamin risi lesa sinā - äsū

"what is price" kiyamin melaga sinā

"rascal" kiyā sarosin bani nne

sāstara räsin dāḍiya helanne

"yes very fine" aise kiyanne

"who's that" kiyā danayen asanne

"Scolding angrily and saying "rascal", casting curses and swearings, saying "yes, very fine,

I say". Asking "whose is that?" from the people".

By these images the poet, was especially successful in drawing a picture of the then

contemporary society. The verses titled The Colombo Horse Race

can be taken as a good

example for this. Here, the writer tries to express the kind of language used by various

nationalities that flocked to watch horse racing in Colombo. Here, the writer has been able to

communicate to the reader something about the infiltration of Western culture and attitudes to

Ceylonese society. Though the writer has tried to show the widespread use of alcohol and the

various inroads against the traditional culture, he never attempted to criticize these.

"see that joki very clever" kiyamin duvanno

bīmatkamin väni väni pasekin si inno

"v ā v ā dore" kiya kiyā velaň dam karanne

meles balā iňda yalit satuin pinanno

"try this girl very fine aise" kiyanno

ukgas doḍam tämbili ä mila dī räganno

sarvat bibīsumituran samagin saranno

" sī ni mari" kiya kiyā pasekin balanno

These verses did not convey a precise meaning. However, borrowing words from the

English language, even Malay words as "sīni mari" (Come here) and mixing them with the

Sinhala was a feature of the literary style in the colonial context, and it led to a cultural

mishmash.

To present his ideas, the poet sometimes tried to go beyond the folk traditions by also

introducing some ornate descriptions. Poets, who had been influenced by the classical verse

traditions, began to show their creative talents in this manner.

ran pä hasev piyayuran kusuman patin dul

pun rū sirin helaňganan samagin youn pat

bimhi pasan bäsa riyn ävidin nolas vi

lansi tosin doḍa doḍā si iyo pasekhi

"Beautiful young women with figures and breasts resembling golden swans wearing shining

bands of glittering flowers, get down from cars and stand aside talking in the Burgher language".

siri däru katek audin särasī yehena

si tauru balanakala neka turaňgun duvana

piyauru väsuma ivataa u bava nodäna

vilibiru nätiva si iyai senmäda pämina

"While a lovely woman with adornments had been watching the horses runnin g, her breasts got

exposed. Unaware of it, she stood among the crowd quite shamelessly".

This shows that the poet had the freedom to choose the language he liked when composing

verses. It is evident from some verses that the poets were influenced by both the folk tradition as

well as the classical tradition. The poetry of that period (19th century) reveals that people in that

society were very conscious about superstitions such as the cawing of crows and the crying of

geckos.

Meanwhile, there were occasions when Tamil words like sokari were used in folk

tales.

Here is an example of Tamil words used in some verses as in the case of the folk play

Sokari.

kanna ḍi kaudiya kāpiri de se

ponnaḍi polauru doluvara dese

sannasi urumusi kosala dese

nanuru solī ra a däka ehi melese.

Poets were inclined to use Tamil words to show the disposition of Muslim and Tamil people and

their social background.

tambināne marikkāre hajji lebbe ennakāriya

minna tambi dore nāne enna seyyo poga vāriya

menna melesa kiyā yon käla ekatu vī karaganḍa dahiriya

yanḍa giyā säma kiyā pasudina balava liya gäna karan kāriya

From verses of this type, it is clear that the poet did not want to be creative, but just to report the

incident in versified form. These poets had no clear idea about how to use the language

appropriately, as is seen here. Nevertheless, they were quite concerned about the alliteration in

their verses. The rhythm was there, but no originality that could be appreciated. Sanskrit words

were used freely on several occasions.

uvana puṇḍar ī ka sanda upasobita

nayana nīlotpala varṇa supuṣ pita

There were occasions when instead of using the dental 's', the palatal 's' has been used in the

compositions.

asav sämadena nagā desavana

sätinan

dikurupaiyat

It shows that the poet has used the idiom of the ordinary man. He has given priority to

ornateness, and not to poetic quality in language. In composing verses, the poet should select

words that fit into the theme.

Just because a poet uses spoken language, he would not be able

to create a poetic language. A poet should be able to use the appropriate language in his

compositions.

In poetic language, morphology and rhetorics take the first place. Morphology

in poetic language exists when the poet uses appropriate words.

The author of the

Siyabaslakara mentions that the words a poet applies have a devine power - dev bas,

siyal

vadanun,

saňda vätup ras, bas kätatelehi,

are obvious examples that are appropriate here.

Yet, in that period (19th century), there were many instances to show that poets applied language

without any appropriateness.

a te kabara äti lombudāyakayā samagin pirisak

hite tibuṇu garumanbindi katikāvak

käte nisā kiyā gänuma bäruva mita karana deyak

site auru hängunā lesa giye ya lombugen paḍeya

paḍe duganda nisā seben i v at kaleya lombā

hädeta Jūjakayāv at ratunet palabimbā

vade nitara pukakasamin giye uvana pumbā

aḍe ivata yava kiyamin nerapi eyen lombā

"A crowd gathers around a toothless contributor with spotted hands. They have a conversation

with him. They pretend he is not ugly and listen to him and then he farts. Because of the smelly

fart, they remove the toothless man from the assembly. As he is always scratching his back, they

say "Get away from here", and chase him away".

The expressions used in these verses were crude and "indecent", the type that was not

found in earlier poetry. The words such as paḍ e, pukakasamin, aḍe, lombā are used by the

people of the lowest ranks in society and not in polite society and hitherto literary circles. This

poetic tradition would have been popular among some strata of the common man because of the

usage of such vulgar words. The words usabayā, ta amalā are used in the verses given below

seem to have been acceptable to the common man during that time.

ekalā ' usabayā' väḍ a maha sa ṅ ga saba  a

nimalā suragurev damdesanā so nda a

patalā 'nänatilak' yatinduge uvana tua

däkalā biya v elā seda divi tama gäbaa

("At that time, the mo ḍayā (fool) came to the Mahā Sangha and seeing the face of Gnanatilake

Thero, who was as wise as Jupiter, became frightened and went immediately to his room".)

ā ve huṅgak taamalā guru hā tamange

vāden jayak läbagena udavan paninai

"He came here after many attempts to debate with his guru (teacher). He thought he could

win and jumped joyfully".

During this period, the Kusa Jātaka was written in verse form, but before that, a number of

classical works had already been written on the same Jātaka during the Anuradhapura and

Dambadeniya periods. Despite the existence of these classics, this is how the Kusa Jātaka story

had been presented in verse form.

in a bäriya Pabāvatī dakinnaa onä ya

yana kiuya ätpattiya hä iya a hiapiya

ina putunu ätgogouvek se to hiapiya

yana yamuya ätun balannaa mage yeheliya

"I can't wait without seeing Pabāvati, Then my son, go and wait in the elephant kraal like a

mahout. Let us go and see the elephants, my cousin".

These verses are not composed properly, and they are written in the folk dialect. Poetical

works such as the Kavsilumiṇ a and Kusa Jātaka Kāvya which were written in the Dambadeniya

and Sitavaka periods, but the Kusa Jātaka story (Sitavaka period) was obviously composed with

the intention of narrating the story for the benefit of the ordinary reader. It is clear that by using

unrefined, vulgar language, the high quality of the verses is lost and there is no literary value in

such verses.

The following verses illustrate the low level, to which the language degraded in

that period.

äti namut varada tamusege mā namaa

giya namut pihiavemi puluvan duraa

gala numut pälei ma a van so dukaa

vikuṇatot ganimi tana deka rupiyalaa

"Even if you have done any wrong, I will help you as far as I can. My sorrow is so great that it

can even split a rock. If you are selling your breasts, I will buy both for a rupee".

sin ā sisī mage ratran kelle

"Keep smiling my golden one".

pem ā mahimi rusiren rankurullā

säma dinama pinavami inda turullā

uccitam paccitam kī basa situ pätu de novedo

evigasin ohu situpätu deya diväs näti aya kese danīdo

topa visin situdeya läbevā piru sandamen kīven do

nuvanäsin salakā bälu kala kisit väḍ a näti bas novedo

"The Dussīlavata says that the Pali words uccitam paccitam have no meaning. "Aren't the

words uccitam paccitam helping you to get things you wish for? How do people who do not have

the divine eye know what is wished for? May you get what you wish for is like wishing for the

full moon".

As literature reflects the quality of a language, a writer should have a good command of his

language. He should be able to manipulate language according to his discretion. A writer's

cleverness or expertise becomes manifested by the manner in which he manipulates language to

get the optimum effect he intended. To create a meaningful impression on the reader, writers

used various styles of language, depending on the themes they had chosen. Some exhibited their

creativity by using ancient literary language; others by using folk language; and still others by

using the diction of urban culture.

During that period, poets made use of both, the language

of scholars as well as the idiomatic folk dialect and accent while some others used a mixture of

both types in their compositions.

kamala uvana muhulasa ganaba tanahasa

nimala kanaka välitalayaka katiya pasa

komala hasin bäma san karana padesa

demaḷa katek vī nam vindinemi pahasa

" Your face is like a lotus and hair like a black cloud. Hips are like golden sandy plains. If it

were a Tamil woman, I would enjoy her caresses".

ranā kusa nil upul pipisara pabala turu mihilol käti

ganā susinindu sevala ranasak sapiri atapalu mal peti

manā lela dena vimala maldam kumudu rändi niti eka sati

kaṇā liya neta nuduu nata haa mepura liyabalanaa äti

Sometimes, words like mihilol, atapalu mal were used as similes. "Blue lilies blossom,

clusters of bees in trees. Very smooth forest moss is complete with a belt of atapalu flowers.

Nice glittering pure bouquets of white water lilies which a woman has never set eyes on without

longing".

There were occasions when the language of folk poetry was used due to the influence of classical

language.

ikiri nagā sämaa ma vä ḍ iyen tilakā

idiri väḍena piyayuru deka ran tilakā

sapiri baň da a peti gomara yasa ruvakā

apiri novan numba adahana ran mäṇ ik ā

"My younger sister Tikiri is prettier than anyone else. Her young breasts jut out like two golden

dots. The spots around her hips are so attractive. Do not develop a disgust towards your own

Ranmenika" .

Here, simple folk poetic diction has been used. These verses exemplify that there was no

definite or accepted language followed by the poets during that period. They used language

according to their wishes and abilities. During the Matara period, although the poets exihibited

their learning by using language with profound hidden meanings, by the end of the 19th century

that situation seemed to have been relaxed in many ways with very little attention being paid to

such "poetical" language. Poets expressed their inner feelings in simple language. Some poets

did not pay any attention to the appropriateness or inappropriateness of the poetic usages they

adopted.

ra a hära dura gaman yannaa situvādo

maa kara nigā mada yudayen pali de do

pi ata a yana mandak paya deka nora rādo

aapirikara dī umba ma a läbu wādo

"Did you think of leaving the country and taking a long journey?

Why have you insulted me? Will your two feet allow you to go from here? Did I give

aapirikara in a previous birth to get you? "

As one can see, the implied meaning of the phrase a apirikara dī umba maa läbun ā do is

contradictory to the Buddhist doctrine. In the classics of poetical literature, various similes and

metaphors were used to praise or describe a woman's physical features. It was common in

classical verse and prose for writers to praise a woman's physique using various similes such as

the sea, flowers, lotus, stems of lotus, swanlike breasts, and describe physical features in women

like eyebrows, eyes, lips, cheeks, tresses of blue hair, waists as that could be spanned by one's

hands etc. From ancient times to the beginning of the modern period, it was seen that poets used

various similes to praise the beauty of women. In classical literature, vivid similes were used to

describe and praise women's beauty.

sädi soňda lakala sikipil kalabev sunilā

mananada karana yut susinindu digu varalā

sakavan suvaa geleyut sumaa pähäsara

ranada mābaraṇa sädi yuvalakini manahara

ratängili soňduru dala pela lakala hämavia

ratasara saraṇin susädi mana tu a

"Hair as beautiful as the blue peacock's tail. Neck shaped like a conch shell. Fingers like tender

leaves. Feet and hands so tender".

lelei etunu ingan dunu käkula se

bändu varala siki nindumal kara se

pandu dekaki piyayuru ran täi se

"Waist like a bow and breasts like balls in golden discs".

ugulaki numbe detana nam salelu bandinaa

väla n dā simbimin depiyayuru banda sipakara turulu

ka v adā simbindo numbe piyayuru käkulu

"That can trap young men to embrace and kiss them. When can I kiss your tender young

breasts?"

sirigat elandage bämayuga etinā

pähäpat ran ramba pälayaki gahanā

pemā vadana elandage tana lapiru

namā tibū ran täimena sapiru

"Beautiful eyebrows, thighs like golden plantain stems. Full breasts like overturned golden

saucers" .

Although some poets made an effort to use similes like etunu inga dunu käkula se, ugulaki

detana, breasts like two balls, poetically they were unable to express proper sentiments expected

of such similes, hence their attempts became unsuccessful. When studying the history of

poetical literature, a salient feature was the adherence to rules of poetics. The use of metre was

one of the main characteristics in poetics. During the era of Sinhala poetical literature, scholars

classified Sinhala poetry into three periods, namely gī (literally "songs"), verses of four lines

(sivupada ), and stanzas ( silo ). Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Dambadeniya and Kurunegala were

considered as eras of songs (gī ), Gampola, Kotte and Sitavaka as eras of four line verses

(sivupada ), Mahanuwara and Matara period as the era of stanzas ( silo ).

This classification is

made taking into consideration the predominant characteristics of that period. An important

book giving descriptions of Sinhala "songs" and metres is the Elusaň däs laku ṇa (Dambadeniya

Period) which distinguishes differences between songs, verses of four lines, long stories,

parables, and metres. This method of prosody had been influenced by classical prosody.

Even

before the Siyabaslakara and the Elusaňd äs Lakuṇ a , our poets were conversant with the usage of

embellishments and metres. Classical prosody was based mainly on styles and colours. In

Sinhala, prosody styles were more important. While "songs" and four line verses gave

prominence to style, unlike rhymes and pauses in poetry, four line verses had characteristics

different from songs. Poets of the Muvadevudāvata , Sasadāvata and Kavusilumiṇa, drew

inspiration from the Sigiri graffiti, and their poetry had the ability to express deep feelings in a

simple and precise manner. Books on poetics such as Siyabaslakara, Sidat Saňgarāva and

Elusaň däs Laku ṇa were held in high esteem as they helped the poets to express their feelings in

the manner they wished. Nevertheless, since the Sinhala poets' preference for alliteration at the

cost of meaning, led to the degeneration of verse. To express ideas easily, simple four line verses

having characteristics such as alliteration and rhyme started to appear for the first time. Verses of

four lines were considered as the most popular form in the Kotte era and in the genre of

"message- poems" ( sandēśa kāvya), four line verse metres were often used. However, of the

poems written in the Kotte period, Pärakumbā Sirita and E ḷu Silo Śatakaya deviated from the

other poems of that period in respect of theme and style. Although the Pärakumbā Sirita was

metricaly composed with verse of four lines, some of the verses showed the influence of Tamil

rhythm (vannam). One can trace the influence of colourful metres in Sinhala poetry written

during that century.

After the Kotte era, it can be seen that metres were subjected to various

types of experiments. Sometimes, there were occasions when traditional metres were used

erroneously while some learned poets had used the same metres correctly. Some poets paid

attention to the effect of syllables. Poets had earlier paid special attention to the composition of

verses and the establishment of props. Books like Sidat Saňgarāva clearly show that poets paid

attention to a mixture of auspicious and inauspicious syllables in their compositions. In the

Mahanuwara and Matara periods, some poets tried to exhibit their learning by experimenting on

various poetic techniques while paying no attention to traditional metres in composing their

poems. In the poetry that came under our review, it was seen that poets on some occasions have

used both short and long metres. Nevertheless in the case of most verses, it was difficult to

identify a definite metre, but it could be conjectured that those have some semblance of a

traditionally accepted metre. No definite rhythm can be found in the following verse written on

the slaughtering of cows.

dura pänna, pera menna, bärida ne - mehē

karadenna, bärivenna, yana täne - äge

kiribonna, tel kanna, näti ne - pasu

mara minna, mas kanna, deti ne

It was written with five letter words intermittent with short vowels. The metres used in this

verse appear somewhat similar to gaja prosody. In gaja prosody, there are 15 modes (mātras – 5

letter words) or 12 modes.

Here, there is a pause in every five to five modes, while using

words like mehe, äge for emphasis. This tendency was a characteristic that comes from the

Mahanuwara era. For the sake of prosody, there were occasions that poets were inclined to

lengthen verses unnecessarily, therefore it was not possible to consider them as verses of high

quality. The following verse has no meaning, but only a tune. For the sake of alliteration, some

letters were added unnecessarily.

bōvena kumarua mė mė mė mė ki gäna basa raja me

ē gäna v airaya mė mė mė mė päna täna kīve

premayen api säma mė mė mė mė yāmena

bōdana ekatuva mė mė mė mė lāmena särasili me

"The king said some words to the growing prince, for which he developed a hatred. With love,

all of us got together and decorated this..."

Sometimes, poets disregarded metre and paid attention only to the vowels that came up in

the verses as it is shown here. A salient feature seen in this period was that more attention was

paid to long metres than to four line verse metres. According to the E ḷu Saňdäs Lakuṇa , there

were about twenty eight metres.

kauru enatek jayagatidäi kiya kiyā nāki mahallo

nämburu vī väni väni ävidin paseka un tosin kuhullo

so n duru pāäti saron kailoli soma da ända taruṇa kollo

ituru pättaka gosin indagati vāda daknā lesin vipullo

"Old men saying, "Who has won so far?" came bending and waving, and waited inquisitively.

Young men came wearing beautifully coloured sarongs, and important people sat there watching

the debate."

In this verse, there are about twenty five to twenty six modes (five letter words), and

according to the rules of prosody, they are classified as mī prosody.

In the verse given below,

which is classified as tenet prosody, the poet has made use of the colloquial language instead of

poetic language.

juvan mage duva bändalā unnā eka pav lē

naming napuru kittā pämiṇa kaḷa apaa aulē

eyin tamai mē anatura sidda une me kā lē

daran inne kelesada mama mē kāraṇa mekālē

"Juvan married my daughter, and we lived as one family until the wicked Kitta came and caused

confusion. That is how this misfortune happened. This situation is too unbearable for me".

Verses that belonged to the tenet prosody have at least twenty one or twenty two short

syllables in each line. Many verses written during this period had more than twenty syllables in

each line which should be specially mentioned here. On some occasions, the usage of a classical

language was an effort made to be compatible with the traditional metre.

siya pata uvana nilupul yuganaya na

mudu itā sevela varalasa koṇḍa dasa na

eka yutā tisara piyayuru mana nan na

gaňga veta giyemi varaňgana siri dara na

"Face like a lotus flower, eyes like blue lotuses, soft plaited hair fallen up to the hips. Teeth like

kumudu flowers. Breasts like swans. I went towards the lake to see these noble ladies."

This verse belongs to the gaja prosody and according to the Kavumi ṇ i Kaḷ amba , we can see

that it resembles more to the Sakvā virita (metre). In Sinhala verse literature, the Samudra ghōṣa

virita was very popular at that time with its ten or eight modes and pauses composed with

eighteen modes. Some of the verses of that period too were written in Samudra ghōṣa virita or

with another metre closer to that.

k adisarayā uva hapilā gira vara ṇ a

tama vatayā bindagana väni leutura ṇa

sända velayā nägipasu taru eli kara ṇa

visirigiyā vänimaya ohuge kira ṇa

"Even though smart, he was struck by an elephant. When the moon rises and stars brighten the

sky and scatter rays of light …"

One can sometimes note that songs were written using metres, and in these songs, metres a nd

pattern were lengthened.

bat pisa nokana sē

tora novamin daniva sē

tama himi santo sē

käv lan bat mäṇ i yan sē

"Cooking rice and without eating it, she stands near her husband to make him happy and mixes

rice for him like a mother".

In these verses, each line has 9, 11, 9, 14 patterns. The unequal lines (metre) in the gī virita

have nine modes and eleven pauses, while the preceding verses have twenty modes and the

subsequent ones, twenty two modes.

The obvious reason is that poets of that period had not

taken any special interest in metre. They wanted to express their ideas unfettered through poetry.

In the structure of Sinhala verse and in its process of development, the verse occupied only a

secondary place. The Sinhala verse that originated with song eventually became extremely

popular due to the verse of four lines (sivupada). The gī or silo which came into existence as a

result of the coordination of song and verse can be shown as a traditional form of verse. While

prosody contributed to the development of verse, the stanza can be termed as a recent

development. It is obvious that the Mahanuwara and Matara poets had shown a great liking for

this type of literature.

Of these works, the 20th century poem Gaňgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva and

Mihiripenne's (1806) verses were reckoned as high. Although Venerable Mihiripenne composed

short poems containing several stanzas, from time to time, he had not written an aśaka or any

other notable book of poems. Nevertheless, Venerable Dharmaratana can be considered as an

outstanding figure in composing poetical stanzas. Among the verses that came under our review,

we could find verses in the stanza metre composed by him. Sometimes, the stanza metre as well

as the four line metre were used frequently.

pānev melak mäduru des tama räs durin lu

G.H. Perera abidam mätindā samat u

minidam ruvan dā mi ṇi lō sudanan noyek desa

bandā nitin guṇaräsin pinavā ves dän

"The poet G.H. Perera uses his poetic talents to brighten poetry and change it. He composed

poetry binding it always in a tasteful manner to win readers' appreciation".

While the stanza mentioned above can be classified as belonging to the Mālin i virita, at

that time many stanzas were written following ancient verse traditions. In expressing or even

describing an incident that occurred at that time in stanzas, the use of new similes was

noticeable. Although the following stanza can be considered to have been composed according to

the Bujangaprayāta virita, it has not conveyed any new ideas.

ahas kus gamangat noyek bū suran käl

edan sal balālā sudam sal igillī

ävit bim telehi diledo kuhul net

säpat vī haḷo dev nives e kuhul sit

"Deities travelling in the air look at the dāna sālā vas with inquisitive eyes. They fly from

Sudarma and abandon their heavenly abodes."

It is clearly seen that these poets were not successful in presenting "tasteful" poetical imagery.

Yet, we can see that through the use of the ordinary man's dialect, they made an effort to express

their ideas freely. As is evident from examples of this period, classical poetry was continuing to

degenerate. Although many poets were enthusiastic about writing poetry, their poems were not

of a high standard, similar to the Sigiri graffiti poems written by ordinary visitors. These poets

were comparatively less talented, and hence their creations were inferior in quality. Although the

poets of that era (19th century) were somewhat conversant with texts like the Siyabaslakara, they

felt that they were not bound to faithfully follow the instructions given there. The poets who used

the words given in the Siyabaslakara did not show that they could grasp the special two-fold

meaning suggested in those.

penet at belen ena arutudu sadatu dekab

yam sanda savanatehi hota - hägnenu penetata nam ve

These words in the Siyabaslakara express the overt meaning as well as the covert meaning. It

appears that the poets at that time have paid more attention to the external appearance or the

form of a verse rather than its content. Around 1838, poetry which was composed such as

Heladiv Abhidhānavata , the attention of poets was directed to the eight gaṇ as, as well as to the

harmful results arising from poetical faults. Under the eight gaṇas , the poets' attention has been

directed to the differences between long and short vowels, appropriate and inappropriate gaṇas ,

auspicious and inauspicious results arising from use of inappropriate syllables, prosody,

grammar, agreeable and disagreeable sources etc. Also attention was drawn to poetic faults,

good and bad gaṇas, errors in prosody, appropriate similes, gender, faults, repetition etc. Books

like the Heladivu Abhidhānavata reveal that those books were written after researching into

ancient texts in order to create a new tradition in the art of writing verses. To support this fact, a

verse from Heladiv Abhidhānavata is quoted below.

kīvot melesa katunāhaa dos nopamā

ätäi poraṇa kavi me sidat saňgarāda mā

"If it is told in this way, the author would be blamed. If there are ancient verses, they are those

cited from the Sidat Saňgarā va".

Until the critics expressed new ideas, poets who held deep-rooted, established ideas did not

abandon their traditional ways, and followed the usual path of imitation. This was one reason

why the poets at that time did not reach "maturity". However, some poets admitted the

shortcomings in their verses, and begged pardon from readers. Nevertheless, due to a trivial

matter relating to prosody in the poem Gaňgārohaṇ a Varṇanāva , the s avsat dam vādaya was

precipitated, and it became a source for a series of controversies on prosody. However, no other

book that appeared during that period could generate such vibrant criticism. Nevertheless,

learned scholars at that time had some awareness about literary criticism. During that time,

critics of poetry were concerned only with the form of the verse. It was very rarely, a critic paid

much attention to the poetic value of a poem. As a result of literary criticisms that arose

centering on the savusat dam vādaya , a series of new views were expressed as shown in the

reviews that appeared in 1889 on books titled Muva Kavuḍu Sivul Katāva and Gaja Sivul

Katāva. Mu va Kavu ḍu Sivul Katāva was written by M. Francis Mary Soyza and the Gaja Sivul

Katāva by J.M.C. de Soyza. These two books were written on the invitation of Gurunnanse

Thambi Appu, and they were sent to scholars for review. A large number of commentators

pointed out the good and bad aspects of the books. Meanwhile, Engeltina Kumari wrote a book

named Kā vya Vajrāyudhaya, showing the incorrect instances in the poetical criticisms of the

above two books and mentioning some valuable views shown by critics. Some criticisms were

not rational and were not unbiased evaluations. They were sometimes utter nonsense or clichés

of indecent words. A critic who got involved in the controversy under the pseudonym of ām a:

discloses this appropriately.

vādayaka päminu na

jaya gäna parusa vadanina

eyin sihi nuvaṇina

yodā piḷituru kivot anaguṇa

guttila maha osuda

mē neka panḍ ivaru sonda

kaḷ a siyaluma vä ḍa

parusa binumen nokaruveda

"They come to a debate and use harsh words. You should reply with discreetness and care.

Guttila Pandit never used harsh words in his debates".

Nevertheless, at the end of the 19 th century, this situation underwent a change. The use of

harsh words in criticism completely disappeared. Likewise, there was a tendency to treat literary

works on merit. During this period, criticism on poetry received encouragement from

newspapers. While poets sent their books to editors of newspapers and magazines for review, the

critics who reviewed pointed out virtues as well as defects in these books. On the whole, such

criticisms paid no attention to the rules of poetics in the Siyabaslakara or Kāvyādarśaya , but

they only commented on the general nature of the poems and the benefits one could derive from

them. The two examples given below would elucidate this point further. A newspaper named

Satya Samuccaya criticized the Siyabas Mal Dama that appeared at that time, as follows:

"Yet those who learn Sinhalese, the great King Vijaya of the Sinhala Island, to those who

like to know news of him and his love affairs."

At that time, the common man began to show some interest in poetry as evinced from some

criticisms that appeared in the newspapers. The poems of Sigiri graffiti were written by ordinary

persons. And Robert Knox in the 18th century mentioned that all the people of Sri Lanka are

poets and that some criticism on poetry confirms that fact. Regarding the folk poems of the 19th

century, a newspaper editor expressed a similar idea:

"Books that are not 'pala batu' verses, and a lot of sivupada exist in the oral tradition of

Sinhala people. As one can see, some use ornate methods, endowed with grammatical

tricks which have been introduced by learned people. Some natural, intuitive persons

compose poems which are full of satire that spread no sooner one heard them."

In composing poetry, the common people at that time used Sinhala language in an unrestrained

and free manner. During the Peradeniya era of the 1960s, there was a literary debate which

according to some critics, was only a sequel to the debate that began at the end of the 19th

century.The Lak Rivi Kiraṇa commented in 1896:

The poetry in our country from ancient times praised our women with various glorifying

terms. Because of this, young men became inflamed with lust and their minds became

corrupted, so nothing conducive to their progress happened. Therefore, poets made up

their minds to abandon this custom, and when praising women, gave good admonitions

for their progress in this world.

By this type of criticism, it is evident that literature, especially poetry was influenced by

religious and other ethics related concepts. It was seen that even critics prompted poets to present

erotic concepts in their poetry in a refined manner. The Lak Rivi Kiraṇa again commented: "It

would be best if poetry that tends to increase carnal desires is not included in these books and

given publicity."

Sometimes, these poems gained popularity in the society, particularly in the south of Sri

Lanka and these criticisms can be considered as an indirect accusation against many poets who

composed such erotic poems.

yauvana madayaa pamaṇak obi nā

kav pada bändumak karatei me vinā

"Suitable only for young people's passion. These verses are composed for them " .

Sometimes, there would have been a growing resentment among common people for books

of poems dealing with erotic themes. It may be mentioned that the influence of criticism on

Sinhala poetry during this period was negligible. It is a well known fact that James de Alwis in

his book A Survey of Sinhala Literature (being an introduction to a translation of the Sidat

Saňgarāva) displays the vast knowledge he had on both the literature of Sinhala language and

the English language. In a society where such well read scholars lived, it was natural for the

common man to imbibe even a very little of that knowledge. James de Alwis in the beginning of

his book remarks thus: "Led by curiosity, or invited by the allurements of Science, Europeans

have, during the past half-century, devoted not a little of their time to the task of unlocking the

rich stores of Oriental Literature."

It was seen that prominent Sinhala scholars who were well-educated in English and

Sinhala, evaluated Sinhala books following the methods adopted in English criticism. When all

these facts are considered, it can be said that although there was an inclination to draw

inspiration from verse traditions in the past, the foundation for the present-day poetic traditions

has been actually laid by the end of the 19th century.

' Gentlemen Poetry' in the Colonial Context

'Gentlemen poetry' is a word that sounds strange today. Nevertheless, from the research done on

Bengal society, the enthusiasm and attitudes shown by males towards poetry is easy to recognize.

Rosinka Chaudhuri's book Gentlemen Poets in Colonial Bengal (2002), describes Indian poets

as English poetry influenced their poetry in the 19th century. It details how poetic creations of

male poets were influenced by English verse.

With the expansion of the printing industry (in

then Ceylon during the colonial era), efforts to express in verse gathered momentum among men.

One reason for this was that the population had become more literate. Educated in government

Sinhala medium schools and in the privenas, this group did not have much knowledge of English

language and literature. The style of language they used in their poetic compositions was closer

to the Sinhala folk idiom. They were not recognized writers and the themes of their creations

were not about those who were subjugated to colonialism, and their books were confined to

illustrate facets of folk traditions of the local population. Apart from those poetical compositions,

the poetical creations of those who received a bilingual education can also be observed. An

outstanding characteristic in the creativity of these poets is the use of the classical diction, which

was close to tradition. In colonial literature, male writers outnumbered female ones. Under this

condition, a set of new readers emerged. The contributions of bhikkhus in the sphere of literature

gradually declined, and it paved the way for laymen to express ideas on topics that were

considered as improper for women to discuss. Because of this, these verses found wide

distribution among readers. Among the subjects of this genre, many were on sentimental or

emotional love. Another topic that drew the attention of poets was social events and praise of

religious festivals. After the well-known poetess Gajaman Nona (1746- 1815), Dona Selestina

(1897) can be indentified as a poetess who had some knowledge in formal poetics. Books like

Kara Palal Hätte, Alimāle ādara Ratnaya, Ka ḷu Siniňdu Katāva and Kāvya Vajrāyudhaya helped

display her talents and made her become well-known. Aṅganaguṇadapana

of N. Catherine

Silva was a book that was widely spoken of in the colonial context and can be treated as

influenced by colonialism. Her poem shows that she was fearless in expressing her ideas. As

Arjuna Parakrama states, … it was in many ways, a self-consciously 'feminist' text. It explicitly

rejected dominant notions of female sexuality, and lays bare male hypocrisy, criticizing the

privileged male hypocrisy …

These poetesses were unique because they possessed a fairly

good knowledge and a grasp in prosody. While most male composers of poetry had no

knowledge of prosody, the advantage they had was the liberty to express their ideas freely.

These writers who had not come under the sway of colonialism, were seen as a group and they

represented Ceylonese folk traditions. Among these were:

Appuhamy Ernest Jayasuriya (1896), Appuhamy Carolis (1895), Appuhamy Manthes (1896),

Jamis Appuhamy, Edirisinghe (1896), Gandara Don Andiris Coranelis Senanayake, Mathale

Nakaththa (1894), Pabilis Don Felix Apa Appuham, Nandana Kavishekara (1895), Wijeweera

(1899) etc. It should be noted that although European, especially Portuguese, derived names

abound above, it should not be assumed that these persons were pro-colonial because during

colonial times, European names were forced on locals. It was only such writers as above who

were able to express something tasteful in their poetry. Many people who read this poetry

enjoyed it and it is a well-known fact that these writers were instrumental in creating a new

reading public. As their creations were so simple, it was not possible to categorize them under

folk verse. The reason for this is that though they expressed ideas in a fearless manner, the

creative aspect was lacking in them. This applies equally to folk songs too. Nevertheless, under

the "modern" social order, these poets used a wealth of material taken from rural as well as urban

society. Since the language they used was closer to the folk language, it appeared as if they were

following the literary traditions of the past. One can trace in it the roots of the poetry of modern

time. The writers who were bilingual, made significant contributions in this period. Among them

were Albert de Silva (1890) (Kavumi ṇ i Kalamba, Pandu Keḷiya, Himat īrtālaṅkā raya, Vesak

Kavu Mal Dama, Volunteer Kandavura, Sūkara Jātaka Kāvya ), T. Bastian de Silva Avurudu

(1891) Mālaya , Go Ghātanaya) and James de Alwis ( Mātara a Gamanak ).

The poetry of

these writers was quite different from that of the poets mentioned earlier, in respect to the usage

of rules and the language of traditional verse. Their attitude towards society as depicted in their

poems was different. Thus, on the whole, one can distinguish several factors that were special to

these poets. The booklets of verses that were published after 1850 contained verses that

resembled the characteristics of verses of the Matara period. The changes that had taken place

throughout the island in the 19 th century in the spheres of economic, social, cultural and political

were reflected in this poetry. On the whole, one can find in these poems, a medley of

characteristics found in the traditional poems and folk poetry.

It was the new reading public, who emerged with the expansion of printing that

showed a penchant for these verses. When one examines the history of the poetic tradition from

its inception, one would be able to discern that a vast change had taken place in respect of theme,

objective etc. On some occasions, an effort was made to revive the ancient traditions. Language,

production of books, composing of poetry, rules and regulations followed by ancient scholars,

changed from time to time paving the way for new ones. The wide distribution of knowledge,

orthography and the abundance of books, are some reasons that can be attributed to these

changes.

In their poetry, writers added personal experiences and liked to use well-known

sayings and similes and the common parlance of the times.

Consequently, modern literature

became closer to the people and more realistic, thus reflecting the complexities of contemporary

life than the literature of the remote past.

During the middle of the 19th century Sinhala literature followed a completely new

direction.

So far, the only influences were from traditional Sinhala and Tamil literature, but

with influences coming from Western literature, the door was open to new ways of thinking.

With the expansion of English education, some poets sought new ways to present their

compositions. With this background, some poets did not show any liking to traditional verse,

which had come down the ages. The influence of English poetry on Sinhala poetry was evident

among those who were not separated from traditional indigenous culture and closer to the

borders of urban culture. The English schools that were established by the Buddhist associations

resulted in the proliferation of English educated young men who learnt English literature as a

subject in school. Having drawn inspiration from English literature, they started composing

Sinhala verses imitating the English verses they had learned. Nevertheless, the traditional

scholars who had received an oriental education did not show any appreciation for the new

poetical trends of these young men. This was the background of the conflict that cropped up

between English poetry and Sinhala poetry.

The traditional verse and their meanings, the

ancient Jātaka stories with the settings of Dambadiva (India) depicted in those, and admonitions

given in those Jātaka stories were a far cry from the English poetry that these English educated

young men knew. These young English educated men chose for their poetry day to day

experiences, which they gathered from their own environment.

Before the introduction of the

English poetic traditions, it was the poetic traditions of the Mahanuwara and Matara period that

had held sway. The British Colonial rulers whose objective was to train locals to fill the

administrative posts, paid more attention to English education and thus Sinhala literature became

neglected.

The two most outstanding poets of the Romantic Age in English literature were

P.B. Shelley (1792-1822) and John Keats (1795-1821) both dying young, Nevertheless, they

influenced English literature of the period immensely, and had also a considerable impact on the

Sinhala poetical literature.

Yet, the extent of influence of English poetry on Sinhala poetical

literature in the 19th century was not well-known. Thus, although there was a wide expansion of

English education towards the end of the 19 th century, it was the Indian poetical concepts that

predominantly exerted some influence on Sinhala verse traditions.

The Siyabaslakara, a

treatise on metrics informed Sinhala poets about the science of poetry. The virtues of a poem,

characteristics of great poems, meaningful embellishments, alliteration and poetical errors

identified by name had not been sufficient for poetics and poetical criticism. To fill this gap,

examples were provided in the Siyabaslakara. Some poetical concepts in the Siyabaslakara have

been in use for a long time by Sinhala poets.

For those poets who had a great desire to use

alliteration in the 13th century, the Elu Saňdäs Lakuṇa , a treatise on prosody by a monk called

Badra, became very useful. Local poets were concerned about poems that brought both

beneficial and harmful results. At present, threre are books that deal with beneficial and harmful

results in poetical compositions. There are the Sidat Saňgarāva (Itu Nitu Adiyara) Lakuṇ usara

and Kavulakuṇu Mi ṇimal. In this way, the necessary instructions are given on how to compose a

poem without blemishes. From Savusa t Dam Vādaya as well as Muvakavu ḍu Sival Katāva and

Gaja Sival Katāva, one can see how the local poetic criticism influenced those works. Despite

tradition, change takes place in modern society; so does the people's taste

Narrative Poetry, Kavi Kola and Popular Literature

According to Ediriweera Sarachchandra, the foundation of the modern Sinhala language was

built on debates, leaflets, periodicals etc. which contributed to enriching it. Similarly, the

reader's knack for reading was enhanced by translations, tales in versified form, plays etc.

Sarachchandra's views on poetry of the 19th century are worth enquiring into. With the wide

expansion of printing technology, the quantity of written material that appeared in verse form

was large. Sometimes books of verses came out in print in considerable numbers because

newspapers had created a growing demand for such books among the general public. Most of

these stories revolved round incidents based on the lives of lay households.

There were many

reasons for the popularity of verse among the people. Narrative poetry tells a story.

For

versified tales, certain incidents, characters and contemporary social events provide a wealth of

interesting themes. These versified narratives are built on a cleverly constructed plot.

Contemporary experiences in the background also add colour to it. Sometimes, poets' personal

experiences are incorporated in the plot to make it more interesting for the reader. Such incidents

are organized in a deft manner to create a deep impression in the reader. The characters in the

verses too change from time to time.

The tales in these narrative poems can be treated as

fanciful fiction. These human experiences presented in a mixture of spoken and written language

and in versified form are meant for the gratification of the reader. On the whole, in the traditional

fiction, narratives can be found in folktales, fairy tales, parables, fables, moral tales, myths,

legends, and also in modern fiction which include both fantastic and realistic fiction. There are at

least four stages in narratives, namely orientation, complication, series of events, resolutions, and

reorientation. To introduce special characters, adjectives are used. Reasons such as where, how

and why are explained, and the story is presented in such a manner that a vivid picture is formed

in the reader's mind through the language.

While these beautiful verses did not receive the

patronage of important and powerful people as in the past, the readers' interest to read Jātaka

and other stories increased. This situation paved the way for the birth of versified narratives in

Sinhalese. A large number of Jātaka stories were versified while every other verse narrative

contained some sort of story as its nucleus. Nimi Jātaka Kāvya,

Temiya Jātakaye Viridu

Pota,

Ummagga Jātaka Kāvya

, Velaňda Rāja Maňgalyaya,

Kummāsa Pinḍ a Jātaka

Kāvya,

Tun Yahalu Puvata,

Kusa Rāja Maňgalyaya,

Deva Dharma Jātakaya,

Kāpiri

Kumārayage Katāva, Tarka Jātaka Kāvya, Sūkara Jātaka Kāvya etc, can be cited as examples.

However, poems written on certain incidents and special events that took place at that time were

more readily accepted by the readers than those based on Jātaka stories. Alut Kaḍe Usāviya

Langadi Sidu Vuna Maraṇayak hevat Juliyānu Katāva Nohot Avavāda Maldama.

("A murder

that took place near Hultsdorf Courts or Juliyanu Story alias Avavāda Maldama") is one such

example.This incident was presented in verse form as a story about a murder that took place near

the Hultsdorf Courts. This poem based on a real incident, offers the reader something for his

gratification. The story is about a young woman from a remote village who had come to work as

a house-maid in Colombo who had later given birth to a daughter. She was named Juliyanu and

was given in marriage to one Juvan Perera. When Juliyanu had flirted with another man, Perera

had filed a case against her. But being overwhelmed by severe pain of mind, he had later stabbed

and killed Juliyanu. How Juliyanu's mother lamented over her daughter's death i s depicted in

verse.

juvan mage duva bäňdalā unnā eka paulē

naming napuru kittā pämina kalā pata aulē

eyein tamai me anatura sidda une me kalē

daran inne kelesada mama me kāraṇā me kālē

"Juvan married my daughter and lived as a family. A wicked man named Kitta came and caused

this problem. That is why this happened. How can I bear this up?"

While the pseudonym 'Kitta' is used to introduce the main characte r of this story, the poet

has been successful in creating a visual picture of him in the reader's mind. By expressing

certain ideas in the story, the poet is able to arouse an emotional feeling of grief in the reader and

this is a special feature of the poem. Sipiri Mālaya or 'The Prisoner's Lamentation' is presented

in verse form to portray a prisoner's suffering.

hapalā kannaa bäri bat  ika gal ekka

uyalā labuhodda diya kaḷa kaha ekka

analā gammiris luṇu ku ḍukara ekka

kālā ina bäri danavā mage bokka

"When I eat rice I chew stones too. The gravy has only saffron and salt. After mixing and eating

pepper and salt, my stomach burns up".

Language used in these verses is not creative, but what attracts the reader is the story.

These verses have been created with the intention of gratifying the reader's desire for reading.

Ka ugampola Ha ana describes in verse the dreadful riot that had taken place in the

Katugampola Pallegama village.

Pallegama Banda and Gunaratna both had a dispute over

some land, and both parties clashed with weapons such as clubs, pistols, dynamite etc. The first

stanza begins with a description of the ghastly scene which strikes the reader's mind with

horror.

rakusan lesin mun säma tul velā sita

ka ḍamin pol kurumbā gas pālu koa

kukulan sävoma allā sivalun lesaa

keruven noyek kō l āhala biyakaru lesaa

"Like devils, they plucked the coconuts and young coconuts, and laid bare the coconut trees.

They destroyed the chickens and many other animals and created a big riot".

The reasons for giving publicity to these types of incidents in print were mainly due to

their sensational nature. Such incidents had become the topics of conversation by everybody in

society. A story can be seen in the book Marakkala Ha ana or Sinhala Marakkala K ō l āhalaya.

A young man from karave caste at Moratuwa had carried on an illicit love-affair with a young

Muslim woman from New Road, Colombo. One day, this young man had secretly taken the

Muslim woman to Moratuwa. Both parties became enraged and a great commotion ensued.

colomba sian marakkallu karatta pia nägilā

deraṇa gaman gatta lesaa mora ugama a gos pirilā

rägena ävit ape liyak megamehi äta sangavalā

uraṇa velā asati sävoma täna täna sia sängilā

"A large number of Muslims from Colombo had gone in carts to Moratuwa and asked the people

why they were hiding one of their Muslim women in the village".

A riot had broken out between the two parties. In the end, they went to the Maradana

police station to settle the dispute. The Muslims, the Sinhalese and the new couple gathered in

the courts where the case was heard.

na ḍu asanā tunpala narana hamuvaa rägena unsituv aminā

yon visinā päminilla geṇā kiv mema taruṇa vañcā lesinā

mav visinā räka un nitinā aḍuvayas vanā ladariya rägenā

giya bävinā āgama näsunā apa kula vināsaya una bävinā

"The Muslims said: This man took away our young underaged girl who was loved and cared for

by her mother and owing to this incident, our religion has been defiled".

To ridicule certain persons, tales in versified form were used. A special feature was to use

verse in the form of dialogue. Based on the character of a well known lawyer from Matara,

Perakadō ru Haana

had been composed. The story here was about a father who had filed a

case against the sons of his first and second wives regarding the ownership of some land. To get

back his land and settle the dispute, he had filed a case. To consult the lawyer, the villager had

visited him taking a pingo load of goods. The whole story is presented in verse in the form of a

dialogue. The lawyer had quickly uttered these words:

perakadōru duu ekalē

hanika melesa kiyai lolē

gamaa gosin numba rālē

gena ēvā makiyana siyalē

desit doḍan jamanāran raseyā

välat samaga varakā gena tosēyā

alut väli hakuru mul bäňda me sēyā

genät deva kanḍa nōnaa sēyā

"Go to the village and bring oranges, mandarins, ripe jak, and a bundle of jaggery and give those

to my lady".

For three years, the case had dragged on and in the end, the villager was sentenced to

prison. His suffering in the prison is expressed here in a very sensitive manner.

siragei ohu inna kalaa

māsa tunak yana ataraa

atisāra leḍak ohua

velā märuṇi asaddaya a

"He was in jail for three months and while he was there he had contacted diarrhea and died".

The uniqueness of these tales was that the writer's sole intention was to narrate a story,

paying no heed to the creative style he used. The various embellishments seen in traditional verse

are not found in these versified stories.The Sinhalese classical poets used a wide range of

subjects, like Jātaka stories, and followed the rules of prosody using similes and anecdotes with

the object of creating an accomplished piece of poetry. The best example that could be cited is

Kavsilumiṇa. Yet, the 19th century verse writers did not find it necessary to use appropriate

language to accomplish their work. Their objective was to present a story in a free style. It was

not a problem for them whether there were characters or not. Colomba nagaraya tuḷa diḷindange

vilāpaya

(The lamentations of the poor in Colombo city) is a poem that describes the travails

of the poor in Colombo city who had been evicted from their houses by the police.

yama paluvo lesin innā 'police' kārayō vit

däḍi vadanā kiyā sithi madakvat novī duk

' ka ḍa kaḍava tope pälpate geval däna' kiyālā

su ṇu visuṇu karat duppat ape päl mekalhī

"Like devils from hell, the police came and destroyed our houses saying: we are going to pull

down your slums".

Another interesting feature of this period is the presentation of old folk tales in a novel

form. A king in the olden days was suffering from some ailment and a dhoby came forward to

cure him. This story is told as an incident that happened in the present.

In most of these

versified tales, some plot is used to arouse the curiosity of the reader. In the 19th century, printing

technology expanded in Indian society and versified tales were growing in popularity among the

urban population there too. Even a well-known folk tale, presented in a novel form would

become popular.

In the context of the closely-knit Sri Lankan society, well known versified

tales gained popularity among the urban as well as the village population. Those writers without

proper education or literary taste, tried to show these tales as chap-books.

These types of

versified tales were printed and sold at public places in the form of Kavi Kola (sheets of verses).

Both Gananath Obeysekera and Neera Wickremasinghe showed that this type of verse could be

rated as Kavi Kola literature printed in the 19 th century. This may be called an oral literary

culture consisting of the popular ballads based on Jātaka tales. They came to be printed in cheap

leaflets called Kavi Kola that were sold at market places and pilgrimage centres. Those sheets of

verses became popular among these classes that had acquired literacy in the state school

system.

It is quite reasonable that this type of verse-sheets be classified under Kavi Kola

literature as suggested by several researchers. With the spread of printing technology in the 19th

century, most forms of poetry became popular among the people. Verse became a popular form

of literature among the masses. Popular literature was not a new form in Sri Lanka. In Indian

society of the 19th century folk tales, plays, and new stories are regarded as popular literature.

C.E. Godakumbura made an effort to depict the poetry of the Mahanuwara period and the 19th

century as popular literature. There is evidence to show that popular stories were presented in

versified form and distributed among the people, even as far back as the 17th century.

The

article published in the late 19th century titled ' The Popular Poetry of the Sinhalese'

bears

testimony to this fact. In popular poetry, one can find the lives and views of the Sinhalese

expressed in simple literary language. These books may be categorized into contemporaneous or

posthumous publications.

The popular poetry of the Sinhalese can be classified into the following categories:

1. Poems written on religious themes;

2. Poems based on Jātaka tales;

3. Poems based on falk tales;

4. Poems based on historical events or incidents;

5. Poems on arts and crafts; and

6. Poems on games and pastimes.

Although poems in this classification can be identified, all of them could not be subjected to

review, as it is too vast in number.

With the expansion all over the world of printing

technology and printing culture, people's levels of education were also enhanced gradually

concurrent with the exchange of knowledge and information. With the expansion of literacy,

'cheap' literature too became widespread. This type of literature was most popular with the

lower strata of society.

The notable feature that one could find was that the 19th century

writers' aim to present popular and interesting stories which were composed according to

"proper methods". Som e of these stories transcended the level of traditional folklore and verses

and took the form of creative and investigative poetry. Likewise, the merits and demerits of a

poem were subjected to scrutiny and made public. In this, all popular verses were branded as

traditional Kavi kola poetry in the 19th century. However, to reach such a general conclusion was

not reasonable, as all traditional poetry had not been subjected to proper investigation. Modern

traditional poetry appears to be more popular. Ariya Rajakaruna mentions that with the

expansion of printing technology in the end of the 19th century, it paved the way for a new

traditional poetry which became very popular.

To classify this poetry in its entirety is,

somewhat difficult as the literature is very vast. On the whole, the aims of the poet were

apparently to compose verse slightly deviating from the hitherto traditions of poetry, but

adhering to its basics. These characteristics that were already evident in the Mahanuwara and

Matara literary periods began to gradually slacken. It is not possible to show the poetry of the

post-Mahanuwara era in a meaningful way, and the Colombo literary era came into the scene

amidst this situation. With the expansion of the printing industry during the colonial era, the

literary style hitherto prevalent in society, and the way of thinking underwent certain changes,

the effects of which were felt on the traditional verse as well.This being the case, it completely

accedes to Sarachchandra's view that these poetical traditions do not occupy a definite place in

the history of Sinhala literature. Sarachchandra mentions that from the middle half of the 19th

century, Western literature held sway over the middle class in Sri Lanka.

Although the people

of the middle class knew about English poetry, there was no strong influence of it on Sinhalese

traditional poetry. Thus, it proves that many critics had arrived at this conclusion without

providing convincing reasons. These verse traditions were founded on the literary style current in

colonial times. With the invasion of politics into the colonial society, the socio-cultural life and

the people's way of thinking gradually changed, and they began to think in new ways.

Traditions were challenged. The improvements in technology, new ways of communication and

road systems - all those factors contributed to change the ideals of the people.

With the

expansion in printing technology and communication, articles, verses, and novels were published

awakening the feelings of national dignity all over the world. This was the opinion of Sharkey J.

Heather. Although a wide expansion of printing technology could be seen in the Sri Lankan

society, there was no poetry to kindle nationalism. The way people used printing techniques for

the purpose of awakening patriotic feeling is shown in these poems. Although this idea was not

clearly seen in the Buddhist revival movement in the 19th century, which revolved around the

temperance movement, poetry helped to build the necessary background for the rise of

nationalism. Likewise, the necessary background was prepared for the independence movement

which gathered momentum at a later stage.

Conclusion

The common characteristic that could be seen in this period under discussion was that scholarly

and folk traditions were both represented in the new poetical traditions. Poetry was the common

medium of communication in society, and it was certainly a characteristic of the traditional verse

that emerged parallel with the printing industry. When society changed, poetry also changed with

it. It is reasonable to treat this period as a period of transition in the history of poetical literary

traditions.

Endnotes

1. Sannasgala, Punchibandara, Sinhala sāhitiya vansaya ( The History of Sinhalese Literature) Colombo: Lake

HousePrinters, 1961 : p 508 Since the beginning of the Anuradhapura era, naming the division of eras in the

history of Sinhala literature was done based on the kingdom, such as Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Dambadeniya,

Kurunegala, Gampola, Kotte, Seethawaka, Mahanuwara and Colombo

Kulasuriya, Ananda, sinhala sāhitiya 1 3rd Printing, Visidunu Publications, Boralasgamuwa, 1999.

Suraweera, A.V., Sinhala sāhithiya sampradāya (Traditions of Sinhala Literature) Rajagiriya: Kurulu Poth,

1998; Godakumbura, C.E., Sinhalese Literature, The Colombo Apothecaries, Colombo, 1955.

These books contain the history of Sinhala prose and verse and descriptions of the different literary eras.

Chandrasiri, Palliyaguru, Visiwana siyawase padya sahithya (Sinhalese Verse of the 20 th Century: The

Landmarks of a Century - The Characterisitics of Language and Literature in Sri Lanka) Ed. K.

Jayatilake et al, Godage & Brothers, 2008

This article contains views on literature expressed by literary writers like Punchibandara Sannasgala,

Tissa Kariyawasam, P.Malalgoda, Meemana Prematilake, Sagara Palansuriya, Martin Wickremasinghe,

Angulugaha Dhamminda, K.D.P. Wickremasinghe, Ananda Rajakaruna etc.

Ibid., 327

Anderson Benedict, Imagined Communities, London: Meard Street, 2006, 38

Read more 'The Origins of National Consciousness'

Kariyawasam, Tissa, Religious Activities and the Development of a New Poetical Tradition in Sinhalese 1852-

1906. Godage Puplication, Mardana, 1973

6. Orsini Francesca, Print and Pleasure , Paul's Press, New Delhi , 2009, p. 18

7. Wickramasinha, Dokan Martino de Zilva, Catalogue of Sinhalese Printed Books in the British

Museum, London: Printed by Gilbert and Rivinhton Limited, St. John's House, Clerkenwell

E.C., 1901; Samaraweera ,Vijaya, World Bibliographical Series – Volume - 20, Sri Lanka Clio Press,

55 St.Thomas' Street, Oxford, England, 1987; OIH – 954, 93 – British Library Cataloguing in

Publication Data; Ware. W. Bibliogaphy on Ceylon , University of Miami Press, 1962, OIH – 954. 93;

Goonatilaka H.A.I., A Bibliography of Ceylon , volumes 1-5; ORM 21 – Sinhalese – British Library

Oriental Collections, Sinhalese Printed Books, 1902 – 1977 microscopic tapes

8. Orsini Fransesca, op.cit ., 9

Ibid., 20, 21

Sarachchandra, Ediriweera, Sinhala navakatā ithihāsaya hā vicāraya (The History and Criticism of the

Sinhalese Novel) 7th Printing, Sarasavi Bookshop, Nugegoda,1997. 8

Ibid . 8.9

12. Ekanayake, Punchibanda , chirantana sinhala sāhitiya vicāra cintanaye vikāshanaya, Samayawardana

Publications, Maradana,1999, 135

Kavu Lakmini Minimal, Ed. Edmund Gunananda, 1953

Siyabas Maldama, (Ed) W.A. de Silva, A.D. 2452, 4 verses

Kapiri Kumarayage Katawa, ( The Story of the Kaffir Prince) 1877, 160 verse

Vachissara Himi, Kotagama, sañgarāja sādu samaya. Boralesgamuwa: Visidunu

Publications, 2003, 82

Kariyawasam, Tissa, Gammadu Puranaya (Ancient Gammadu), Maradana: Godgae Publications, 1990, 13–14

Ibid., 82

Welanda Raja Mangalya , 1893: 130 verse.

Kulasooriya, Ananda. sinhala sāhitiya 1, ( 3rd Printing) Boralesgamuwa:Visidunu Publications, 1999, 274

Muwadevdavata Sannaya , (Ed.) Kongastenne Ananda Himi, Dehiwala. Sri Devi Printers Company 1997, 4

verse.

Sasadavata , ( Ed. ), V.C.S . Gunawardana: Colombo, 2000. 4 verse.

Jataka Kavya, 22 verse.

Gnamanthri Katawa , 1867 , 2 verse.

Jataka Kavya,, 8 verse.

Kavyasekaraya, (Ed) Ratmalane Dharmarama Himi, 1966, 25 verse.

Fernado, J.D . Ummagga Jathakaya, 1894, 6 verse

Nakaththa, Matale, Kusa Rāja Mangalya , 1894, 7 verse.

Devadharma Jatakaya , 1873, 7 verse.

Ibid., 5 verse.

Devadharma Jatakaya , 1873, 7 verse.

Ekanayake, op.cit., 134

Adikaram, E.W. The Buddhist History of Lanka, 2 Chapter 2

Suraweera, A.V. purātana sāhithyāvaliye avasānaya hā nūtana yugaye ārambaya ," sumangala sañgrawa .

(Ed), Kadihingala Soratha Himi Colombo: Vidyodaya Viswa Vidyalaya Sri Sumangala Gunanusmarana

Sangarawa, 1962, 79.

Saratchandra, Op.cit ., 6.

Ibid ., 8.

Satara Maha Vādaya, (Ed( Kalinga Obeywansa, 1990 , xiii.

Dharmadasa, K.N.O. " yatat vijitha yugaye äthivu hela bodu punarudaya" ape sanskrutika urumaya, Ministry of

Cultural and Religious Affairs. Nugegoda: Deepani Publications, 1995, 24

Sarachchandra, Op.cit., 09.

Wickremasinghe , Sumangala Sangarava , 1962: 33.

Karunatilake, H.N.S., "The Local and the Foreign Impact of the Pānadurā Vādaya", Journal of the Royal Asiatic

Society of Sri Lanka, New Series, Vol. XLIX, 2004, p. 75.

Paranavitana, Rohini., "Buddhasāsana Punarutthāpana Vyāpārayaṭa samagāmīva æti vū bhā ṣ ā śāstrīya

prabodaya ", Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka New Series, Vol. XLVIII, Special Number, 2003, p

189.

Dharmadasa. K.N.O.W, Op.cit., 246.

Sannasgala, Op.cit., 740

Kariyawasam, Tissa, 'Mohottiwatte Gunananda himipāno pasubima ha kārya sādhanaya " Mohottiwatte Sri

Gunananda samaru kalāpaya. (Ed), Tissa Kariyawasam & Praneeth Abayasundera, Maharagama: 1990. 181.

Sannasgala, Op.cit., 741.

Dharmadasa . K.N.O. W., Op.cit., 246.

Sugataratana, Kahapola., "Philosophical Aspects of the Pānadurā Vādaya", Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Sri

Lanka New Series, Vol. XLVIII, Special Number, 2003, p 56.

Sannasgala, Op.cit., 737.

Vanarathana Himi, Vanarathana Himi, Kamburupitiye. Matara mānava vansaya hā purāvidyatmaka itihsaya.

Gangodawila: Piyasiri Printing System, 1994. 237.

Ganga Rohana Varnnava. (Ed) . Sri Tilakasiri, Maradana: Rathna Publishers, 1998, 2 verse.

Ibid., 103 verse.

Gangarohana Varnanava, Op.cit.,2 verse.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid., xxii.

Wijesuriya, Wimala. "sausat dam wādaya" , vesesa sāhithiya kalāpaya , Battaramulla Ministry of Cultural Affairs.

1986. 2.

Ekanayake , Op.cit., 140.

Introduction to Sidat Sangarava , (Ed) James de Alwis, 1852: ccxxix.

Hewawasam, P. B.G., matara yugaye sāhitiyadarayan ha sāhitiya nibandana , Colombo: Department of Cultural

Affairs, 1966, 316.

Sannasgala, Op.cit., 647.

Kariyawasam, Religious Activities and the Development of a New Poetical Tradition In Sinhalese 1852-1906'

(Ph.D. Dissertation,) University of London, 1973. 351.

Wickremasinghe, K.D.P. Nuthana Sinhala Sahithya (Modern Sinhala Literature), Colombo: M.D. Gunasena &

Com, 1966. 146.

Gagarohana Varnnava, 67 verse.

Wimala Wijesuriya, Op.cit., 109.

Sannasgala, Op.cit., 58.

Hewawasam, P.B.G., "The Sav Sat Dam Controvery" UCR, January – April 1958, vol, xvii. 1&2, 1959. 134.

Athlipi (Handwritten ) National Archives Dept. 5, 63, 1.

Jayathilaka K, "deshiya sāhitiya vicāra kramayak tibiya yutuda?" (Should there be an Indigenous Literary

Criticism Method?) Special Literary Issue, Battaramulla, Cultural Department. 1987, 131.

Rajakaruna, Ariya, sampradāya hā sihina Lokaya( Traditions and the Dream World) Colombo: Rathna Book

Publishers, 1968 : 11.

Lankamulla, Kusumalatha, nūtana sinhala sāhitiye purogamiya- James de Alwis . Pioneer of Modern Sinhala

Literature, James de Alwis, Pannipitiya: Varsha Publications, 2002 ,74.

Rajakaruna, Op.cit., 265 .

Suraweera, A.V. Sinh ala sāhithiya sampradāya . Rajagiriya: Kurulu Poth, 1998, 182.

Sarachchandra Ediriweera, Op.cit ., 10 - 11.

Sastralankaraya, 1854, 6th paper, 46, 47.

Ibid, 1854 March 7th, 50.

Ibid, 1854 March 7th, 50.

Kariyawasam Tissa, R.D.P.S., 1973 : 365.

Wijesuriya Wimala, Op.cit ., 6.

Sannasgala , Op.cit., 737.

Godakumbura. C, E, Sinhalese Literature, Colombo : The Colombo Apothecaries1955 : 347.

Wickremasinghe Martin, Martin Wickramasinha Kruthi ekathuwa (A Collection of Martin Wickremasinghe's

Books) 1992:329.

Kariyawasam, R.D.P.S., 363.

See Nuthana Sinhala Padya Sahithiyehi Pasubima , Ven. Olaganwatte Chandasiri, 2009.

Gangarohana Varnnava, 69.

Vanaratana himi, Op.cit., 03.

Hewawasam, The Sav sat dam Controversy, UCR , Vol. xvii, no. 1 & 2, 1959: 134.

Punnyakarmalankaray, 1890: 106 verse.

Wijesuriya, Op.cit ., 4 – 7.

Subhasitaya, (Ed), Munidasa Kumaratunga, 1989, 6 verse.

Budugunalankaraya, Education Publications Dept. , 1978, 9 verse.

Abhinavarama Varnanava, 1893 : 114 verse.

Punyakarmalankaraya, 1890 : 106 verse.

Nandana, Kummasa Pinda Jatakaya, 1895 : 28 verse.

W. J. Passasum Hara, 1892: 9 verse.

Velada Rajya Mangalya, 1893: 18 verse.

De Silva Albert, Bentara Lakara, 1890 : 3 verse.

Appuhamy V. Carolis, Kupadi Hatana , 1893 : 46 verse.

Siyabaslakara Varnnava , (Ed) Henpitagedera Gnanasinha thero 1964 : 25, 338 verses.

Ibid. 13 verse.

Punchibanda, Op.cit ., 127

Balagalle, Wimal G. Sinhala Bhasawe Prabawaya ha Pravardenaya, Battaramulla: Departmrnt of Cultural

Affairs, 1996. 57.

Ibid, 64.

Wickremasinghe, Martin, Sinhala Sahit yaye Nagima , Gakissa , 1962 : 38.

Amunugama , Sarath, Sanskruthiya Samajaya ha Parisarasaraya , (Cultural Society and Environment) Boralla,

1999: 222

Silva , D.M. , Weliwita Pimkam Varuna, 1899: 143 verse.

Appuhamy Carolis, Kupadi Hatana, 1893 : 13 verse

Ibid, 43 verse.

Wijeweera U., Tharuna Thotilla, 1899: 16 verse.

Gunasekera, W.A. Kawmini Dapana, 1894 :138 verse.

De Silva Albert……… 24 verse.

P.L.D. The Colombo Horse Races, Printed at the Lakdiva Press, 1891

Ibid. , 9, 10 verses.

Ibid., 15, 18 verses.

Kariyawasam, (R.D.P.S), 391

See, Sinhalaye Dravida Balapama, Hissalla Dharmaratana Himi, Gangodawila: mänawa hithawādi lekana

parshadaya, 2001.

Okari Katawa hewat Guru Hatana, 1886: 32 verse.

This book was published in 1870, at Colombo Jambugas widiya by Paulis Fernando 1891: 65 verse.

Siyabaslakara Varnana va , ( Ed). Henpitagedera Gnanasinha Himi, 1964 :1, 3

Ibid., 1, 13

Ibid ., 1, 5.

Ibid., 1, 6.

dalhi kolāhalaya , op.cit., 123. 124 verses.

Ibid., 41 verse

Ibid, 21, 22

Don. P. Arnolis, op.cit., 47. 59. 60 verses.

Nakatta, Matale, Kusaraja Mangalya , 1894: 107 verse.

Raga Masivilla, 1889: 80 verse.

Gunaratne, Pativratha Vada Viniscaya, 1896 : 41 verse.

Kariyawasam, Op.cit ., 1996: 208.

J.A. Ayasasoka Malaya, 1893 : 40 verse.

Dusseelawatha or Recognizing the Mark of an Immoral Person. J.A. Perera of Colombo, Printed in the Lakmini

Pahan Printing Press, 1887 : 22 verse.

Wijeweera, Taruna Totilla, 1896 : 26

De Silva Albert, Kawmini Kalamba, 1890 : 8

Budumula Upata, 1893: 127

Adara Ratna Malaya……80

So Kaw Mal Dama, 1895: 105, 111, 114.

Ranahansa Malaya, 15, 13.

Raga Masivilla, 1889 : 24 76

Nandana, Kummasa Pinda Jatakaya, 1895 : 137 139

Hewawasam P B G, matara yugaye sāhitiyadarayan ha sāhitiya nibandana, Colombo: Department of Cultural

Affairs, 1966

Muvadewdavata Sannaya, (Ed) Kongastenne Ananda Himi, 1997: xxxvi.

Kangahaarachchi T.B. ,"sinhala padiye ārambaya hā vikāshanaya " (The Beginning and Transformation of

Sinhala Poetry) Venerable Henpitagedera Gnanasiha Abistawa Sangrahaya, (Ed) Henpitagedera Gnanawasa

Himi and some others. Colombo: Gunaratna & Company, 1979:138 – 139.

De Silva, Bastian, Go Ghatanaya , (Slaughtering of cows) 1894: 48.

Elu Sandas Lakuna. (Ed). Kahawe Shri Sumangala Himi, 1935:208.

Fernando Mariyana, 1895: 319.

Prera K.R. ………17.

Elu Sandas Lakuna. (Ed), Kahawe Shri Sumangala Himi, 1935: 250.

Prera K.R., Sudu Hatanaya, 1895: 28.

De Silva Albert, Ka v Mini Kalamba, 1890: 6.

Silopadaya, 1887: 58.

Alalu Katava, 1872: 107.

Elusandas Lakuna, 1938: 81.

Nanda Himi, Akuratiye, Sinhala Silo Sahitya , 1989: 1

W.J., Passasum Hara, 1892: 2.

Punyakarmalamkaraya, 1890 : 46

Siyabas Lakara Varnnava , 397

Heladiv Abhidhanavata, (Ed). Kirielle Gnanawimala thero, 1961.

. Satya Samuccaya

Sarasavi Sandarasa , 1888 : 10, 26

Lak Rivi Kirana, 1896: 02 . 12

Ibid., 12

The Sidat Sangarawa, (Ed) James de Alwis, 1852 : Introduction – ix

Chaudhuri Rosinka, Gentleman Poets in Colonial Bengal (Emerging Nationalism and the Orientalist Project),

Calcutta: Naveen Kishore, Seagull Books Pvt. Limited, 2002.

Silva, N. Catherine, Anganagunadapana, Welitara, 1894.

Wickramasinha Martin, Sahitya kruthi ekatuva, Dehiwala. Thisara publisher. 1992. 332

Paranavithana, K.D. James de Alwis' Fiction and Letters, Cultural Affairs Dept. Colombo: 1996.

James de Alwis wrote many books of verses under various topics which are discussed here.

Paranavitana K.D. , Op.cit., 12.

Dharmadasa, K.N.O., "yatat vijitha yugaye äthivu hela bodu punarudaya " ape sanskrutika urumaya. Ministry

of Cultural and Religious Affairs. Nugegoda: Deepani Publications, 1995. 2.

Sarach chandra, "mātara- colomba krutiwalin ape sāhitiya shestraya palalva giya häti" sāhitya dārā.(Ed), P.G.

Punchihewa and others. Maradana: 1960.

Sirimane, Works of G.B.Senanayake, 1985: 162.

Ibid , 162.

Kariyawasam, Sahitiye Vardanayata Puvatpat Kalawe Dayakatvaya , S āhithya vishesha kalāpaya. Battaramulla:

Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 1987, 13.

Kariyawasam, Batahira Sahithya Vicara Pravesaya , (Western Literature Criticism ) 1996 : 141.

Ekanayake, Punchibanda, Op.cit., 170

Ibid., 60

Sarach chandra, Na vakathawe Vikasanaya ha Vicaraya, 26

Helen Ruth Bass and Diane Morilla, Prose and Poetry, (A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding

Literature)Weston Watch Publisher, Portland, Maine, 1998, 81.

J. Dore, Chinese Narrative Poetry, United States of America: Duke University Press, 1988: 104, 105.

Targeting Text, Blek Education, Narrative, Poetry, Drama, 2002, p. 4.

E.D.J , nimi jātaka kāvya, ( 1899).

Themiya Jataka Viridu Pota, 1886: 67 verse

Ummagga Jataka Kavya, 1874, 300 verse

Velada Rajya Mangalya, 1893, 130 verse.

Kavisekera, Kummasa Pinda Jataka Kavya , 1895, 173 verse.

Appuhamy, Tun Yahalu Puwata,, Kapiri Kumarayage Katawa, Tarka Jataka Kavya.

Nakaththa, Matale, Kusa Rajya Mangalya, 1894; 111 verse.

Pr era Hendrick, 1877: 169 verse.

Perera K.R. Dewa Dharma Jatakya, 1886: 83 verse.

Perera, duliyanu katāva , ( The murder that took place near the Hultsdorf Courts or Juliyanu Story otherwise

Awawada Maldama) Saraswathy Printers 1895.

Ibid, 28 verse.

Sipiri Malaya . published by V. Carolis Appuhamy. Printed in Colombo, lukmini Palaga Printers, 1888.

Prera C. Katugampola Hatanaya, Lakrikirana Printers. 1892

Ibid., 3, 4 verses.

Ibid ., 41 verse.

Marakkala Hatane or Sinhala Marakkala Conflict, This book was printed & published in 1870, Colombo Jambu

gas veediye, by Paulis Fernando E S Lava sampadanaye karana ladi, No. 37, Nil Veediye Colombo, 1891. 34

verse

Ibid., 56. verse

Perakadoru Hatana, Printed in Colombo, 1869.

Ibid., 27, 28 verses.

Ibid., 112 verse.

sathyālankāraya, vol: 4, 1876, May - October 4 Wednesday – Paper 113, 114.

Don William Appuhamy, isth ri gñānābilāsaya hewath isthri näna abilasa , Published by Udawatte

Appuhamilage residing in Sedawatte. (Colombo: Lankābinawa Vishrutha Printing Press, 1894)

Orsini Fransesca, op.cit., 111

Ibid., 8.

. Wickramasinha Nira , (B.S.S) 78.

" With the growth of the Sinhala printing industry in the latter half of the 19th century, a considerable number of

ballads concerning Buddhist themes and folk literature came to be printed. These had existed as oral literature earlier and

also in manuscript form. This literature when printed was meant for the ordinary Sinhala Buddhist reader, and it would

have created a novel awakening among them. " Tilak Kularathna 175.

See Orsini's Book, Print and Pleasure.

C.E Godakumbura. Sinhalese Literature ( Department of Cultural Affairs, 1996), 277 .

( He has described popular poetry as buddhist studies.The story of pattini, religious ballads, secular stories,

cultivators' songs )

Silva de W. Arthur, The Popular Poetry of the Sinhalese, (reprint from Journal No. 68 Part 1., Volume xxiv., 1915 – 16, of the

Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch), The Colombo Apothecaries Co. Ltd. 1917

Ibid , 3,4.

Chandrasiri Himi Olaganwatte, Nuthana Sinhala Padya sahithye Pasubima (The Background of Modern

Sinhala Poetical Literature) , Maradana: Godage Publishers, 2009.

Ian Haywood , The Revolution in popular literature ( print , Politics and people , 1790 - 1860),

(Cambridge University Press , 2004), 2

The transfomatoin of popular literature in the 1840 s can only be fully understood by placeing

it within a longer process of political and cultural change.

Ariya Rajakaruna, 'nūthana sinhala kāvya: 1850 – 1960' visiwana sathawarsaye sri lankawe bāsā

sāhithya laksana. (Ed). K. Jayathilaka and others, (Colombo: Godage and Brothers, 2008), 373 .

E. R Sarachchandra ' Language and Literature in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries'

-History of Ceylon - vol:111 (Ed.), K.M.de. Silva (Peradeniya: Univeristy of Ceylon,1973), 243

J. Heather Sharkey, Living with Colonialism ( Nationalism and Culture in the Anglo - Egyptian Sudan)

London: University of California Press , 2003), 2.

K.M .de De Silva, ' Nineteenth Century Origins of Nationalism in Ceylon' (H.O.C .1981), 259.

ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.

Visiwana siyawase padya sahithya (Sinhalese Verse of the 20 th Century: The Landmarks of a Century -The Characterisitics of Language and Literature in Sri Lanka)

• Palliyaguru Chandrasiri

Chandrasiri, Palliyaguru, Visiwana siyawase padya sahithya (Sinhalese Verse of the 20 th Century: The Landmarks of a Century -The Characterisitics of Language and Literature in Sri Lanka) Ed. K. Jayatilake et al, Godage & Brothers, 2008

This article contains views on literature expressed by literary writers like Punchibandara Sannasgala

• P Tissa Kariyawasam
• Meemana Malalgoda
• Sagara Prematilake
• Martin Palansuriya
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Religious Activities and the Development of a New Poetical Tradition In Sinhalese 1852-1906

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• Dokan Wickramasinha
• Martino De Zilva

Wickramasinha, Dokan Martino de Zilva, Catalogue of Sinhalese Printed Books in the British Museum, London: Printed by Gilbert and Rivinhton Limited, St. John's House, Clerkenwell E.C., 1901; Samaraweera,Vijaya, World Bibliographical Series -Volume -20, Sri Lanka Clio Press,

OIH -954, 93 -British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

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• England Oxford

St.Thomas' Street, Oxford, England, 1987; OIH -954, 93 -British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data; Ware. W. Bibliogaphy on Ceylon, University of Miami Press, 1962, OIH -954. 93;

A Bibliography of Ceylon, volumes 1-5; ORM 21 -Sinhalese -British Library Oriental Collections

• H A I Goonatilaka

Goonatilaka H.A.I., A Bibliography of Ceylon, volumes 1-5; ORM 21 -Sinhalese -British Library Oriental Collections, Sinhalese Printed Books, 1902 -1977 microscopic tapes

chirantana sinhala sāhitiya vicāra cintanaye vikāshanaya

• Punchibanda Ekanayake

Ekanayake, Punchibanda, chirantana sinhala sāhitiya vicāra cintanaye vikāshanaya, Samayawardana Publications, Maradana,1999, 135

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341482654_The_Poetical_Works_and_the_Poetic_Language_during_the_British_Period_in_Sri_Lanka_Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society_of_Sri_Lanka_New_Series_Vol_59_No_1_2014_pp_49-112

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